tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-67070209419888992782024-03-06T12:01:03.486-08:00Lewis Twiby's History and Geek StuffDedicated to history, comic books, and paleontology Lewis Twibyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03565517444017278980noreply@blogger.comBlogger308125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6707020941988899278.post-63111545561800475372020-05-17T08:27:00.001-07:002020-05-17T08:27:06.494-07:00Comics Explained: Black Widow<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5CokmM2hk9F2UHxsZZr26e-HRc4l_WDLz7Ryk9PwQmmbAQNmU53OY7CTNb5H17lGGj1yhnNL5LMYnB6rZDmOHvtK-fJXm6cXGYhrgWVfkAv94Mefe0AEbTe3YnPf0EHdV4_6a_fNvMgWL/" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="499" data-original-width="329" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5CokmM2hk9F2UHxsZZr26e-HRc4l_WDLz7Ryk9PwQmmbAQNmU53OY7CTNb5H17lGGj1yhnNL5LMYnB6rZDmOHvtK-fJXm6cXGYhrgWVfkAv94Mefe0AEbTe3YnPf0EHdV4_6a_fNvMgWL/s320/Black_Widow_Vol_6_12_Textless.jpg" /></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Black Widow, thanks to her regular appearance in Marvel movies since <i>Iron Man 2</i>, has made her one of Marvel's best known heroes. Debuting in Marvel's soar to supremacy over the comics industry in the 1960s Black Widow has become one of Marvel's major characters - she's appeared in most major Marvel-wide events, been part of the Avengers, dated Daredevil, and even led SHIELD. Today we'll give an overview of the main Black Widow, Natasha Romanova, and some of her appearances. I would also highly recommend watching Variant Comics' video on her <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4uLIErUay-Q">here</a> for some recommended reading. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>Creation</b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmFWn-C2e1KOVnMjURugKbAikiAazyJmvOMJlRCVofgYjKCkX0Nu5NgtZzfOUQvg2nGrLrRi5yt5S2GvcptDdif9RLK2QOdgQNdU1oxvwGC3oXEom8gLQXhexkhKvdF42Y6M2nEpQF1ffh/" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="388" data-original-width="256" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmFWn-C2e1KOVnMjURugKbAikiAazyJmvOMJlRCVofgYjKCkX0Nu5NgtZzfOUQvg2nGrLrRi5yt5S2GvcptDdif9RLK2QOdgQNdU1oxvwGC3oXEom8gLQXhexkhKvdF42Y6M2nEpQF1ffh/s320/Tales_of_Suspense_52.jpg" /></a></div><b><br /></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Black Widow was co-created by Stan Lee himself in a story written by Don Rico, and drawn by Don Heck. Her original design was quite different from her now iconic design - she had black, middle-length hair instead of her long, red hair, and she wore dresses/cat-suits instead of her black costume with wristbands. Arris Quinones from Variant Comics has pointed out how her design bore a stark resemblance to that of Catwoman from the <i>Batman </i>TV show - this show was incredibly popular and had a major impact on comic books. As a result, Black Widow was a Catwoman-esque femme fatale, although sexism of the period meant that even if there was no Catwoman in <i>Batman</i>, she would likely have been created as a femme fatale. Black Widow debuted in 1964, during the Cold War, so the paranoia associated with the Cold War resonates in her story. Natasha Romanoff, later Natasha Romanova, first appeared in <i>Tales of Suspense #52 </i>in a story straight out of an Ian Fleming novel. Natasha Romanoff, the Black Widow, was sent by the KGB to capture industrialist Tony Stark, and to assassinate defector Anton Vanok, the first Crimson Dynamo. Allied with fellow spy Boris Turgenov, who had his own Crimson Dynamo suit, they got into Stark Industries. Natasha tried to seduce Stark as Boris went to kill Anton, but it went wrong. Stark realised the plot and used gas to escape from Natasha, while the Crimson Dynamo shot Boris's suit blowing it, and him, up. A few issues later, <i>Tales of Suspense #57</i>, she encountered the incredible archer, Clint Barton aka Hawkeye, who was wrongly accused of robbing a jewelry store. Teaming up they fought Iron Man, and this initial team-up would set the stage for a long history together. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>Origins</b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWOzf1ohJZ86iiySjqn_7TRIs_Rbb0jjBu3spMVktPrfD51-9d5kZ6Va7T7HuQ9_Yg7v3lLtdbNJaPLV0wahuCVSW9zWV2PDcUV6U2fQTuqowHlb1mc7_E5Mfq3i4OwjEWYzwyrIes3ieR/" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="371" data-original-width="255" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWOzf1ohJZ86iiySjqn_7TRIs_Rbb0jjBu3spMVktPrfD51-9d5kZ6Va7T7HuQ9_Yg7v3lLtdbNJaPLV0wahuCVSW9zWV2PDcUV6U2fQTuqowHlb1mc7_E5Mfq3i4OwjEWYzwyrIes3ieR/w220-h320/255px-Avengers36panel.jpg" title="Her original costume" width="220" /></a></div></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">There have been several contesting origins for Natasha Romanova, which have actually been worked into her character. With a contested past which she herself doesn't fully know it very much fits into her whole character arc. Her original origin, from <i>Daredevil #88</i> from 1972, has her being saved by a Russian soldier Ivan Petrovitch during the Battle of Stalingrad in 1942. Ivan raised the baby as his own daughter, that is until she is picked up by the Soviet authorities who trains her to be a super-spy and a ballerina. The KGB even got her married to another operative, Alexei Shostakov, until he became the new Red Guardian, and she was told that he 'died' so she wouldn't go after him. When Black Widow got another solo title in 2005 her origins were retconned; her original story was still quasi-canon, but it became consumed in the brainwashing which she experienced. A fire broke out in a house in Stalingrad in 1928, and a dying mother passed her baby daughter to Ivan Petrovitch. However, Petrovitch wouldn't be able to solely raise the young Natasha. Instead, she was taken and inducted into the 'Black Widow Program' where she and another 28 young girls were taken to the 'Red Room' to be trained. In the Red Room they would be brainwashed in order to become efficient spies, trained to become deadly fighters, and bio-technologically and psycho-technologically enhanced. This way her ageing was extremely slowed so, by the 2010s and 2020s, she still looked like she was in her thirties. These enhancements also made Natasha reach peak physically fitness that a human can have without being classed as a superhuman. During her training she also met Bucky Barnes, the Winter Soldier.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>Joining the Avengers</b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5uy_4RBPwD_DsekQ3SPpTW8lL1q6TTDft-c_I-5Be9CmruEzMbU8K9YgTXBrBuMAhJJQ9LqufjTVPtRthpOSumJ2gY-UnsGQtNQ0AQwYkn64i-lpqaGfEbRLOH2fuG706osidwVTvQsBF/" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="604" data-original-width="500" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5uy_4RBPwD_DsekQ3SPpTW8lL1q6TTDft-c_I-5Be9CmruEzMbU8K9YgTXBrBuMAhJJQ9LqufjTVPtRthpOSumJ2gY-UnsGQtNQ0AQwYkn64i-lpqaGfEbRLOH2fuG706osidwVTvQsBF/s320/Black-Widow-Marvel-Comics-Natalia-Romanova-3-m.jpg" /></a></div><b><br /></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;">After her debut Black Widow was an antagonist of several Marvel characters as she tried to take down Iron Man to win back favour with the KGB. Some of them had her fighting alongside Hawkeye, and fighting against Spider-Man. Her superiors brainwashed her again in <i>Avengers #29 </i>to use other villains to wipe out the Avengers, but in the next issue she shook off the brainwashing and helped her former foes. In <i>Avengers #32-33 </i>to prove herself to the Avengers, and to a reformed Hawkeye whom she started seeing, she helped the team fight a fascist group called the Sons of the Serpent. The Avengers were willing to accept her, but there was an issue. The Avengers had a no killing policy, something which has since changed to an extent, and, as she refused the have the same policy, Natasha was not made a full Avenger. Instead, she was made a 'reserve' Avenger - while affiliated and fighting alongside the Avengers Natasha was not a formal member of the team. While this was happening she continued having romantic interests with Hawkeye forming a 'power couple' in the media of the Marvel Universe. Imagine Brad Pitt and Angelina Jolie just fighting aliens and robots. While part-time with the Avengers the head of SHIELD, Nick Fury, would approach her to become an agent of SHIELD. This began a long history of Natasha Romanova being a member of the super spy organisation, and at times she would even lead the group.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">In <i>The Amazing Spider-Man #86 </i>from 1970, with her popularity increasing, Marvel decided to give her a costume re-design. Gone was the Catwoman inspired outfit. She now had her iconic long, red hair, and a black suit with accompanying wristbands. Called her 'Spider Bites' the wristbands could release tasers, tear gas pellets, explosives and knock out gas. Accompanying that, Natasha was still physically deadly being an expert marksmen, a master in various hand-held weapons, and knew various fighting styles ranging from jiu jitsu to sambo. Throughout the 1970s she would be a member of SHIELD taking missions to disrupt organisations, like Hydra, and allying herself with 'street-level' heroes, like Spider-Man. In 1970 she somewhat got the first of several solo titles - <i>The Inhumans and Black Widow</i>. This comic was split into two, with half focusing on stories about the Inhumans by Jack Kirby and the other half focusing on Black Widow by Marie Severin. However, the comic didn't last long. After the eighth issue Black Widow was dropped, and two issues later it was cancelled altogether. Meanwhile, she continued fighting for social justice issues. Writer Les Daniels, in 1971, noted how Marvel used her Left-wing upbringing to fight for oppressed people in the US. This was a greater reflection on how Marvel started moving away from the fairly conservative Comics Code Authority which restricted what comics could or could not write about. Among her adventures she helped Puerto Ricans fight against police brutality and hippies against organised crime.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>Daredevil and the Champions</b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmRu0o8UjbISePpqYQxUlZdbYOJgM8AeBxbiwnEWo3Tj-c_New3_dFzCX-XT7zW04wkotPFfRNgCLefS4K1cXQHVTTTItdTkEcXDK2KuUKQ7fcURnhnEAzwPAH809bBkdBA7_m707dw3th/" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="450" data-original-width="300" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmRu0o8UjbISePpqYQxUlZdbYOJgM8AeBxbiwnEWo3Tj-c_New3_dFzCX-XT7zW04wkotPFfRNgCLefS4K1cXQHVTTTItdTkEcXDK2KuUKQ7fcURnhnEAzwPAH809bBkdBA7_m707dw3th/s320/portrait_uncanny.jpg" /></a></div><b><br /></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;">In <i>Daredevil #81 </i>in 1971 Black Widow started teaming up with Daredevil, this was during a time when he had started to become an alcoholic. She helped him start to recover, and the two formed a romantic relationship. They actually made comic book history by being the first romantic couple in comics, who weren't married, to cohabit. The Comic Codes Authority had frowned upon non-married couples living together, so, as soon as the Authority's influence started to wane, Marvel jumped at the chance to experiment with stories. It was during this period that Black Widow began helping oppressed people, part of which was facilitated by Daredevil. Although Daredevil has regularly become involved with the Avengers he is very much a street-level hero; with Natasha regularly appearing alongside Daredevil this gave her the chance to tackle real-world issues. Marvel also decided to tackle misogyny. Natasha became angered by how Daredevil kept on trying to protect her; quite ironic considering that she was a near-superpowered super-spy. As a result, in 1975 she left to go to the West Coast, and she co-founded the Champions in <i>Champions #1</i>. This was a smaller version of the Avengers, based on the East Coast, consisting of Black Widow, the former X-Men Iceman and Angel, the Spirit of Vengeance Ghost Rider, and the literal god Hercules. In their debut they teamed up to stop the Greek/Roman god of war Pluto from taking over Olympus. However, the team did not last long. They were bankrolled by Angel's fortune, and, unsurprisingly, funding a super team is expensive. Due to bankruptcy the Champions had to fold - in real life sales were low so Marvel canned it. Since then the Champions have occasionally reformed, and characters have regularly made fun of it. In the 1990s Iceman called it an embarrassment...</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><br /></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>2000s - Marvel Heavy-Hitter</b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEilrOIqSK7Mp34jiES-bA_9U3q-3tUoylcFr59nYKxJF855TA4-1WGgGFjVigjMvI3QRBKqe1sJ9qxYJJD66Qiad0je1sn-dcz9E-HevM7S0r63OCLN6gfVUR_76Veql2VuT7Y3Jzca9LLg/" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="542" data-original-width="340" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEilrOIqSK7Mp34jiES-bA_9U3q-3tUoylcFr59nYKxJF855TA4-1WGgGFjVigjMvI3QRBKqe1sJ9qxYJJD66Qiad0je1sn-dcz9E-HevM7S0r63OCLN6gfVUR_76Veql2VuT7Y3Jzca9LLg/s320/Red_Room_%252528Earth-616%252529.jpg" /></a></div><b><br /></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;">After the folding of the Champions in the 1970s Black Widow remained a big Marvel character, but it was largely through appearances alongside the Avengers, SHIELD, and Daredevil. That is until the 2000s. Black Widow, especially since the resurgence of her own title which began in 2004, has become such an important character in Marvel - she has played a major role in most of Marvel's universe-wide events. In her own title, her past came back to haunt her. After seeing her husband, again, (he was constantly believed dead and turning up alive), she retired to Arizona until the other Black Widows were soon being found killed. It was here that we found out her new origin. Natasha had to hunt down who are killing off the other Black Widows, and avoid being killed herself. In 1999 we were introduced to another Black Widow who was also trained in the Red Room - Yelena Belova. The two have since had a somewhat antagonistic relationship - while occasionally working together they have an intense rivalry. Later, she took part in the <i>Secret War </i>event. Supervillains had somehow been getting new, improved weaponry, and Nick Fury found out the new leader of Latveria was using the master engineer Tinkerer to fund American supervillains. She went on a covert mission with Fury, Luke Cage, Wolverine, Daredevil, Spider-Man, and Daisy Johnson to take her down. During the Superhero Civil War she sided with Iron Man, and when Norman Osborn (the Green Goblin) took over SHIELD she knew that he would use it for his own means. Osborn formed his own Avengers, and hired Yelena to be his version of Black Widow. However, it wasn't Yelena - it was Natasha. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>Death and Resurrection</b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8CYJFEGJ4fou9fRpsCD7MuCVUWSzQxK71Fto9KZL0w4XsjKoZpS0QUchJXYQs4wbewGZeMiIqLF11ppOQUCj20k0OH20190N6xD4VmCkzbO-wpJlXmNvU6F8pZRohO7ZpPqKP6i3ZXUGM/" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="985" data-original-width="640" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8CYJFEGJ4fou9fRpsCD7MuCVUWSzQxK71Fto9KZL0w4XsjKoZpS0QUchJXYQs4wbewGZeMiIqLF11ppOQUCj20k0OH20190N6xD4VmCkzbO-wpJlXmNvU6F8pZRohO7ZpPqKP6i3ZXUGM/s320/728691._sx1280_ql80_ttd__0.jpg" /></a></div><b><br /></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;">In 2017 the <i>Secret Empire </i>event happened - you might remember it from the now infamous image of Captain America saying 'Heil Hydra'. For my sins as a comic fan I have still yet to read <i>Secret Empire</i>, so most of this next part is what I've learnt from later comics and general discussions. To basically summarise, Captain America has been replaced by a copy created by the Red Skull manipulating a Cosmic Cube - this version lived a life where he had been raised by Hydra. A fascistic Captain America helped Hydra take over the US, so many heroes formed a resistance called the Underground. Black Widow, however, was angry at the Underground for not adopting more direct, and lethal, methods. Following the events of <i>Civil War II </i>the new young heroes re-formed the Champions, and they followed Natasha with the hope to talk her out of killing Cap. She decided to train the Champions in order to fight, and they went after the fascist doppelganger. However, trying to protect Miles Morales she was killed by the evil Cap. Because comics there turned out to be a clone with all her memories. So, as usual, comics ended up reversing the emotional impact of death for characters and readers.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Thank you for reading. For other blog posts please see our <a href="https://www.facebook.com/TwibyHistoryGeekStuff/?hc_ref=ARQKPEl9N2pFiRAodcgY4s7DbK9gcP7EM3h5sjXV72QA0QRBIjObNhj5d5EPwPE0Yoo&ref=nf_target&__tn__=kC-R">Facebook</a> or catch me on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/lewistwiby?lang=en">@LewisTwiby</a>.</div>Lewis Twibyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03565517444017278980noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6707020941988899278.post-88998641382778216262020-05-10T07:44:00.002-07:002020-05-10T07:44:29.011-07:00Paleo Profiles: Spinosaurus<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyGuqWsJvnPwSq_TTh4FdkrrHWgQ_J31X5NB9x4I5CQombTxc6WuynExNjDRWIavKl3iacEQc0nea-dhT6msE0MoKJVA9eGVpGFRMh3HoehdsNJFNoMGBZ2opeygt2KuByAYbsbiHWOXZD/s1600/1024px-Spinosaurus_swimming.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="837" data-original-width="1024" height="261" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyGuqWsJvnPwSq_TTh4FdkrrHWgQ_J31X5NB9x4I5CQombTxc6WuynExNjDRWIavKl3iacEQc0nea-dhT6msE0MoKJVA9eGVpGFRMh3HoehdsNJFNoMGBZ2opeygt2KuByAYbsbiHWOXZD/s320/1024px-Spinosaurus_swimming.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">From the National Geographic Museum</td></tr>
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A recent discovery, as of writing, has once again changed how we view the large, carnivorous dinosaur <i>Spinosaurus</i>. Every new discovery revolutionises how we see this dinosaur, and truly shows how diverse dinosaurs were as a group. While fairly accurate for its time of release, <i>Jurassic Park III </i>boasted that they were showing a carnivore larger than <i>Tyrannosaurus</i>, but since then new discoveries have completely changed how we see <i>Spinosaurus</i>. A new discovery could mean this blog could become quickly outdated. I also want to stress, the recent paper is still somewhat contested so bare that in mind while reading today.</div>
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<b>Discovery and Fossils</b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiyxkbHhZXwc0toUE6GFPHPmGMe2vjOtgy1wsdRoD3bJMmQkiuE9_W_esRHhslebc9zrxDD-sFmdwZfZwk7v2MG8cYP9NQo5jEF0mKxRYCtntP4BBaVCnz3yszHr_J7RMNiRUN63Dsw2RSB/s1600/1024px-Spinosaurus_Crane.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="910" data-original-width="1024" height="284" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiyxkbHhZXwc0toUE6GFPHPmGMe2vjOtgy1wsdRoD3bJMmQkiuE9_W_esRHhslebc9zrxDD-sFmdwZfZwk7v2MG8cYP9NQo5jEF0mKxRYCtntP4BBaVCnz3yszHr_J7RMNiRUN63Dsw2RSB/s320/1024px-Spinosaurus_Crane.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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Saying that <i>Spinosaurus </i>changed with each discovery is an understatement. The first fossils of <i>Spinosaurus </i>were discovered in the Bahariya Formation in Egypt in 1912, and was later formally described by German palaeontologist Ernst Stromer. He could tell from the fragmentary remains that it was a theropod, the bipedal carnivorous dinosaurs, but it had curious neural spines which formed a sail on its back. Due to this, Stromer named it <i>Spinosaurus aegyptiacus</i>, 'Spined Lizard from Egypt', and with the fragmentary remains he based the reconstruction on another, recently discovered, big theropod - <i>Tyrannosaurus</i>. <i>Spinosaurus</i> was reconstructed as being like a <i>T rex </i>with a sail on its back, but scientific knowledge of the 1910s meant that it was portrayed as dragging its tail along the ground. Stromer would discover many other dinosaurs from Egypt, but they are all sadly lost. An Allied bombing raid in 1944 destroyed the museum which kept Stromer's fossils, and the specimens were destroyed. As a result, a new reconstruction wasn't made until the 1990s! With the destruction of Stromer's specimens palaeontologists found it hard to identify which fossils belonged to <i>Spinosaurus</i>, however, new discoveries and other spinosaurids being found, such as the <i>Baryonyx </i>from England, allowed a new reconstruction. This one changed the skull from resembling a tyrannosaur, to the one we have today with an elongated jaw - this is the reconstruction used in <i>Jurassic Park III</i>. In 1996 a new find from Morocco indicated a possible second species, but that it still heavily debated with palaeontologists debating whether it is the same species as the first one discovered. Then, in the mid-2000s, it was discovered to have a small crest on its head, and in the late-2000s a well-preserved snout revealed a series of nerves. Isotope analysis, mixed with this, indicated that <i>Spinosaurus </i>was largely a fish eater - something long theorised which was now confirmed.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRUuhpxgGMLcIJAFnXfEL7kkoIXtf-czfnHA_8at1hEFvM8fB136S0R9czNAhucrt0IDhJQv3sNXHyjY2WaT0L0YCfotNeMOWNQFnVpUeKWD0LHx7lC6sZWFy5KtXtv0kMYuM3yiD11Jmg/s1600/ngscience-2002-spino_ai2html_3_evolution-desktop-medium.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1317" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRUuhpxgGMLcIJAFnXfEL7kkoIXtf-czfnHA_8at1hEFvM8fB136S0R9czNAhucrt0IDhJQv3sNXHyjY2WaT0L0YCfotNeMOWNQFnVpUeKWD0LHx7lC6sZWFy5KtXtv0kMYuM3yiD11Jmg/s320/ngscience-2002-spino_ai2html_3_evolution-desktop-medium.jpg" width="263" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">From 1915 to 2014 to 2020, from National Geographic</td></tr>
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A 2014 paper, led by Nizar Ibrahim revolutionised how <i>Spinosaurus </i>has been reconstructed. This paper made the dinosaur a quadruped, semi-aquatic, and had a newly shaped sail, which was likely covered in some skin. This caused waves in the palaeontological community, albeit for some controversial reasons. Many agreed that Ibrahim's reconstruction, which utilised 3D modelling, offered a new insight into the life of <i>Spinosaurus </i>- palaeontologists had realised that it was top-heavy, but a quadrupedal lifestyle would solve that issue. However, as Ibrahim had combined several specimens together it was criticised, and the reconstruction shortened the hind legs of the <i>Spinosaurus</i>. It was seen as being a combination, and not an actual specimen, and the now shorter hind legs created issues with other spinosaurids. <i>Baryonyx </i>and <i>Suchomimus</i>, for example, had much longer hind legs, although the only specimens of these animals were juveniles. Others have theorised that younger spinosaurids had longer legs which ceased to grow at the same rate as the rest of the body as the animal aged. This brings us to 2020. Ibrahim and his team had discovered more tail bones of a <i>Spinosaurus</i>, something which had not been found before. Neural spines and chevrons were found on the tail, these spines were long, and did not overlap allowing flexibility. This means that the tail was adapted to an aquatic lifestyle - it has a resemblance to a crocodile's tail. <i>Spinosaurus </i>had gone from a sailed bipedal lizard which dragged its tail on the ground, to a fish-eating, aquatic or semi-aquatic dinosaur.</div>
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<b>Biology</b></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiEJgjGsmQxr3jmUZ7bXRlGVhfAN2a2iPN1ngFW_jXMs_cLgb-pn48JTPe6QdiD0P8Pr7b5Or2QxBKsSqOibLDfq8e9zjvaei15xgZsQSNKLeX8ogzL8SOdQdbRlDnQWZYkBx3stuLLfZz0/s1600/Reproduction_of_Stromer%2527s_Spinosaurus_Display.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="853" data-original-width="1280" height="213" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiEJgjGsmQxr3jmUZ7bXRlGVhfAN2a2iPN1ngFW_jXMs_cLgb-pn48JTPe6QdiD0P8Pr7b5Or2QxBKsSqOibLDfq8e9zjvaei15xgZsQSNKLeX8ogzL8SOdQdbRlDnQWZYkBx3stuLLfZz0/s320/Reproduction_of_Stromer%2527s_Spinosaurus_Display.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The spines at the National Geographic Museum</td></tr>
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We've largely looked at the biology of the <i>Spinosaurus </i>in the discussion about the fossils discovered, so we'll go over it quickly here. The most iconic aspect of <i>Spinosaurus </i>is its 'sail'. Since the early-2000s it has been debated whether it was a sail or a hump - something which would heavily determine what type of lifestyle the <i>Spinosaurus </i>had. One theory, which is widely accepted regardless of whether it was a hump or sail, is that it could be used for display - bright and intimidating colours, including the sheer size of it, could be used to deter rivals or attract mates. When it was more accepted that dinosaurs were cold-blooded, a theory argued that the sail could be used for thermoregulation with the <i>Spinosaurus </i>basking in the sun to warm itself up. However, it has largely been found that dinosaurs, especially larger dinosaurs, were more warm-blooded than cold, with them likely being somewhere in-between. Consequently, this theory has largely gone out of favour. The hump theory argues that it is a fatty buildup to sustain the dinosaur while it was searching for new food reserves. Since 2014, it has generally been seen as some form of 'sail' with skin covering it. With recent discoveries revealing an increasingly aquatic lifestyle, a likely function was to aid in locomotion. Ibrahim's findings have revealed a much more streamlined animal making it more aerodynamic to cut through the water. The 'sail' would serve as a way to cut through the water more efficiently.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_5OWQqSnqr02GrGjbzw7mqd9gKvIKFh4qMdCcEF6sb9TResb6uQSOuWZn-r65oQWtEHGQ8Fq7mFP3B-qhI7FRgaCfosVueJ17GheMJakuKNRp2hqTDsLAnoJqUnhmFKC4UMRzWJibOYLa/s1600/ngscience-2002-spino_ai2html_1b_tail-desktop-medium.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="424" data-original-width="1600" height="84" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_5OWQqSnqr02GrGjbzw7mqd9gKvIKFh4qMdCcEF6sb9TResb6uQSOuWZn-r65oQWtEHGQ8Fq7mFP3B-qhI7FRgaCfosVueJ17GheMJakuKNRp2hqTDsLAnoJqUnhmFKC4UMRzWJibOYLa/s320/ngscience-2002-spino_ai2html_1b_tail-desktop-medium.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The new tail, from National Geographic</td></tr>
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The new paper is still being debated - Mark Witton, for example, has argued that the tail bones may not be entirely suited to an aquatic lifestyle. However, we do see a lifestyle mostly suited for the water, maybe a semi-aquatic one like a crocodile. Ibrahim has reconstructed the dinosaur with webbed feet, for example. Before 2014 it was assumed to be a terrestrial animal which fed on fish - the long snout with crocodile-like teeth was suited to grabbing hold of fish, it had strong forearms to swipe at its prey, and its skull seemed adapted to standing for long-hours at the waterside. The BBC documentary <i>Planet Dinosaur</i>, for example, used this idea. This theory had <i>Spinosaurus </i>hunting like a heron or stork, largely based on the skull. The eyes and nostrils are high up the head while the snout was covered in nerves and receptors. The snout could be in the water to detect movement, while the nostrils and eyes could be out of the water, so it could see what it was hunting and it could still breathe. However, the recent discoveries has changed how this would work. Instead, <i>Spinosaurus </i>would hunt like a crocodilian - using its sensitive snout to find fish and turtles through the murky waters. With the nostrils and eyes high up the head, this would allow the <i>Spinosaurus </i>to poke its head out of the water while remaining submerged. The new shorter hind legs is part of the aquatic lifestyle - short but muscular to give propulsion to power the dinosaur through the water.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBs8V495-z9KKHaajB-BedUDJYryA9JK8SF3mreQ8Z-NJUEIUwkMMUcHLwVTjfRZv-lNX0-X_dFVlEsUXUGtpxhz3_Wd_UjZUM1iDnr79RuixpG0H0Sfr9gB3lmKVOLLA1yhJA4sWuGoqJ/s1600/Spinosaurus_new_skull.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1200" data-original-width="800" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBs8V495-z9KKHaajB-BedUDJYryA9JK8SF3mreQ8Z-NJUEIUwkMMUcHLwVTjfRZv-lNX0-X_dFVlEsUXUGtpxhz3_Wd_UjZUM1iDnr79RuixpG0H0Sfr9gB3lmKVOLLA1yhJA4sWuGoqJ/s320/Spinosaurus_new_skull.jpg" width="213" /></a></div>
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Finally, we have the size of the <i>Spinosaurus </i>itself. Until relatively recently many of the established sizes were estimates. Even today, the size of the <i>Spinosaurus </i>is still based on estimates. Back when <i>Spinosaurus </i>was thought to be bipedal estimates placed the dinosaur at over 4 metres in height (discounting its sail), but the recent findings have placed this as being around 3 metres (again discounting the sail). The original height placed it as being one of the most, if not the most, tallest carnivorous dinosaurs - taller than the <i>Tyrannosaurus</i>. <i>Spinosaurus </i>is still very big coming to a minimum length of 15 metres (about 49 foot), and its largest length is estimated to be around 18 metres (59 foot). Its skull was big coming to around 1.75 metres (5.7 foot) from snout to the back of the skull. It was full of teeth evolved to grasp hold of fish, these teeth could be over an inch in length.</div>
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<b>When and Where </b></div>
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Unfortunately for <i>Jurassic Park III </i>fans, <i>Spinosaurus </i>would never have met <i>Tyrannosaurus</i>. Not only is it found in an entirely different continent, but it lived several million years before the <i>Tyrannosaurus </i>came about. <i>Tyrannosaurus </i>evolved at the very end of the Cretaceous period being one of the last dinosaurs, whereas <i>Spinosaurus </i>lived in the early Cretaceous until the late Cretaceous. The oldest fossils date around 112 million years ago, and the most recent fossils have been dated to around 93 million years ago. This was a time when large, carnivorous dinosaurs became very diverse. There were the spinosaurids, abelisaurids, tyrannosaurids, carcharodontasaurids to name a few. <i>Spinosaurus</i>, meanwhile, lived in two areas - the Bahariya Formation in Egypt and the Kem Kem Beds in Morocco. As a result, both species are named in reference to where they have been found: <i>Spinosaurus aegyptiacus </i>and <i>Spinosaurus maroccanus</i>. However, as mentioned earlier, there have been debates about whether the Moroccan species is actually the Egyptian species. </div>
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<b>The World of <i>Spinosaurus</i></b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjm_gG0nLaSkCouFuFbh6jAH1Sme4H6yuyamJT2h8wnzR-7lN7f1qfFSsiGqcMfZvGA1a7AZs5OHMEYMVtfqFW8dD9utTuQQVAm2DYaCMVEJagdKhgCyofYEg37n0-mfWZyGi6SbLCPJ_dr/s1600/download.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="161" data-original-width="314" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjm_gG0nLaSkCouFuFbh6jAH1Sme4H6yuyamJT2h8wnzR-7lN7f1qfFSsiGqcMfZvGA1a7AZs5OHMEYMVtfqFW8dD9utTuQQVAm2DYaCMVEJagdKhgCyofYEg37n0-mfWZyGi6SbLCPJ_dr/s1600/download.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">From <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/04/first-spinosaurus-tail-found-confirms-dinosaur-was-swimming/">National Geographic</a>, Art by Davide Bonadonna</td></tr>
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Knowing that <i>Spinosaurus </i>was aquatic, or semi-aquatic, you may be wondering why the <i>Spinosaurus </i>lived in the arid regions of North Africa. However, back in the Cretaceous North Africa was a shoreline and a mangrove forest creating the perfect environment for a giant, crocodile-like dinosaur. Both sites where the dinosaur has been found are full of a diverse range of fish and aquatic life - sharks, sawfish, coelacanths, lung fish, ammonites, crabs, oysters, rays, and crocodiles. A mangrove swamp full of life with access to the sea proved to be the perfect habitat for the <i>Spinosaurus</i>. Other dinosaurs lived in the region including the giant sauropods (long-necked dinosaurs) <i>Paralititan </i>and <i>Aegyptosaurus</i>. However, the Bahariya Formation and Kem Kem Beds were full of giant carnivorous dinosaurs - these places have been described as possibly the most dangerous places to go on safari in history. Possibly the largest carnivorous dinosaur <i>Carcharodontosaurus </i>were found here, as well as many other big carnivores like <i>Deltadromeus</i> and <i>Rugops </i>being just the most well known. With so many carnivores around it is evident that they had to specialise to avoid competition, <i>Spinosaurus </i>could happily hunt the waves to avoid contact with a hungry <i>Carcharodontosaurus</i>. This does not mean there were overlaps in prey. The spinosaurid <i>Baryonyx </i>has been found to have preyed upon the herbivorous <i>Iguanodon</i>, so it is not too far-fetched that the <i>Spinosaurus </i>could prey on dinosaurs which went too close to the shoreline. Neural spines have been found with chunks taken out of them by a large carnivore, likely <i>Carcharodontosaurus</i>, indicating that at times clashes could have happened. </div>
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The sources I have used are as follows:</div>
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-Michael Greshko, 'Bizarre Spinosaurus makes history as first known swimming dinosaur', <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/04/first-spinosaurus-tail-found-confirms-dinosaur-was-swimming/">National Geographic</a>, (29/04/2020), [Accesed 08/05/2020]</div>
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-Jason Treat and Mesa Schumacher, 'Reconstructing a Gigantic Aquatic Predator', <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/04/spinosaurus-graphic-reconstructing-gigantic-aquatic-predator/">National Geographic</a>, (29/04/2020), [Accessed 08/05/2020]</div>
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-'Spinosaurus', <a href="http://www.prehistoric-wildlife.com/species/s/spinosaurus.html">Prehistoric-Wildlife.com</a>, [Accessed 08/05/2020]</div>
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-Ben G Thomas, 'The New Look of Spinosaurus', <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jj8ZZNGWOhs">YouTube</a>, (03/05/2020), [Accessed 08/05/2020]</div>
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-Trey the Explainer, '"New" Spinosaurus', <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qETwhuhxcsc">YouTube</a>, (30/05/2015), [Accessed 08/05/2020]</div>
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-Nizar Ibrahim, Simone Maganuco, Cristiano Dal Sasso, Matteo Fabbri, Marco Auditore, Gabriele Bindellini, David M. Martill, Samir Zouhri, Diego A. Mattarelli, David M. Unwin, Jasmina Wiemann, Davide Bonadonna, Ayoub Amane, Juliana Jakubczak, Ulrich Joger, George V. Lauder & Stephanie E. Pierce, 'Tail-propelled aquatic locomotion in a theropod dinosaur', <i>Nature</i>, 581, (2020), 67-70</div>
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-Nizar Ibrahim1, Paul C. Sereno, Cristiano Dal Sasso, Simone Maganuco, Matteo Fabbri, David M. Martill, Samir Zouhri, Nathan Myhrvold, and Dawid A. Iurino, 'Semiaquatic adaptations in a giant predatory dinosaur', <i>Science</i>, 345:6204, (2014), 1613-1616</div>
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-Thomas Holtz, 'Spinosaurs as crocodile mimics', <i>Science</i>, 282:5392, (1998), 1276-1277</div>
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-Simone Maganuco and Cristiano Dal Sasso, 'The smallest biggest theropod dinosaur: a tiny pedal ungual of a juvenile <i>Spinosaurus</i> from the Cretaceous of Morocco', <i>PeerJ</i>, (2018), 6</div>
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-Jan Gimsa, Robert Sleigh, and Ulrike Gimsa, 'The riddle of Spinosaurus aegyptiacus’ dorsal sail', <i>Geological Magazine</i>, 153:3, (2016), 544-547</div>
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-<i>Planet Dinosaur</i>, (2011), BBC, 14 September</div>
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Thank you for reading. For other Paleo Profiles we have a list <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/p/paleo-profiles.html">here</a>, and for other blog posts we have a <a href="https://www.facebook.com/TwibyHistoryGeekStuff/?hc_ref=ARRoRkdt_DBp2UEjePSvy-IwXGpelzJwVXLRcIm8qXP6IkqH3NtvJGCFG6ShZEhK2f8&ref=nf_target&__tn__=kC-R">Facebook</a> or catch me on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/lewistwiby?lang=en">@LewisTwiby</a>.</div>
Lewis Twibyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03565517444017278980noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6707020941988899278.post-1028280033813142262020-05-03T11:25:00.001-07:002020-05-03T11:25:07.405-07:00World History: The Russian Revolution and early Soviet Union<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhY-JeIMCbwELHLUeBDQfldZjDaIs4n7DCdN10FYD97rQIcwLOvYrvP8ednoUa1J0TYq0fybN_F-9hQFtL3pTofEtVAKFPmTz0tLdGyTYCZdIFig_JuKtJql7vnBuK87XTSnGZl6EroPziY/s1600/1509070976_39072_900.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="600" data-original-width="900" height="213" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhY-JeIMCbwELHLUeBDQfldZjDaIs4n7DCdN10FYD97rQIcwLOvYrvP8ednoUa1J0TYq0fybN_F-9hQFtL3pTofEtVAKFPmTz0tLdGyTYCZdIFig_JuKtJql7vnBuK87XTSnGZl6EroPziY/s320/1509070976_39072_900.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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Eric Hobsbawm characterised two events as beginning what he described as the 'Short Twentieth Century', or 'The Age of Extremes'. These were the First World War and the Russian Revolution. Last time on World History we discussed the First World War, and today we will be looking at the Russian Revolution. Perhaps one of the most important events in history, the Russian Revolution was an attempt to create a clean break from the old world and create a new one - very few events can claim the same, such as the Agricultural, Haitian, and French Revolutions. This controversial event still divides historians, so I have tried to draw from sources across the political spectrum - bare in mind I am a libertarian Marxist/anarcho-syndicalist so this will inevitably impact my analysis. Due to the scope of work which has been done, I want to remind readers that World History is not meant to be an in depth look - just an overview which zones in on some aspects of the past. We will not just be looking at the Revolution, we will be looking at the Stalin years as well.</div>
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<b>Prelude to Revolution</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhL0Wv0MKa_BJmmmA_qb2Toly7BDb4Or640Q8Gm13tLsUKwL9NVNIYy7fTFZWCRB7ikGxMlPQ9paI9rXcgdTpy9aIImbCTUm9lEsivRJ2PeXXThoRoQXlK9pxEx1fUZMm8qxRYatdyHfAY6/s1600/Russian_Imperial_Family_1913.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1415" data-original-width="1600" height="283" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhL0Wv0MKa_BJmmmA_qb2Toly7BDb4Or640Q8Gm13tLsUKwL9NVNIYy7fTFZWCRB7ikGxMlPQ9paI9rXcgdTpy9aIImbCTUm9lEsivRJ2PeXXThoRoQXlK9pxEx1fUZMm8qxRYatdyHfAY6/s320/Russian_Imperial_Family_1913.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Nicholas II and his family</td></tr>
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When we last looked specifically at Russia it was during the empire's turbulent <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2019/03/world-history-reforming-russia.html">nineteenth century</a>, a period of time which saw conservative reform to conservative backlash. Alexander II had tried to reform Russia following the disastrous Crimean War - serfdom was abolished, the press was given greater freedoms, and small-scale education was implemented across Russia. However, reforms were undertaken to keep the social structure intact, and to create a 'modern' nation Alexander began a series of attempts to 'Russify' the incredibly diverse empire. For example, since 1863 Polish was barred in education in favour of Russian. Following the assassination of Alexander II by the socialist group People's Will, these reforms ended - Alexander III and Nicholas II brought back unrestricted conservatism. Russia, though, was beginning to undergo great changes. Russia remained rural and disconnected for most of its history, but industrialisation was very slowly creating an urban workforce. The influx of liberal and socialist writings during the nineteenth century, many written by Russian exiles, created new opportunities to criticise the autocratic rule of the tsar. Domestically, various socialist groups began forming, although many resembled secret societies more than mass movements in keeping with a larger history of Russian resistance. The overbearing nature of tsarist rule meant that even anarchist societies had to remain small and insular to avoid the state instantly cracking down on them. Various Left-wing groups emerged in the Russian Empire ascribing to various ideologies, and national identities - among them included socialist and nationalist parties fighting for Polish or Lithuanian independence, the Jewish Labor Bund, the Socialist Revolutionary Party, and, most famously, the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP). The RSDLP would see many of the major figures of the Russian Revolution be members of it - Lenin, Zinoviev, Trotsky, Kollontai etc. In 1903 the party split over the issue of party membership between the Mensheviks, under Julius Martov, and the Bolsheviks, under Vladimir Lenin.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicrEZLXmI_SNVDA1iqFlglz8mee9T1a6BW9QT5o7bo9FgTKVsSLEdOylkMQguJNFutazw_P9T3vI46cU3efnP3ZhET-M_Tt9BU0W1662D5__axNGOCXqGVEow6lJBYHGbg4ZXYp1SFm_a1/s1600/Rasputin_PA.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1215" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicrEZLXmI_SNVDA1iqFlglz8mee9T1a6BW9QT5o7bo9FgTKVsSLEdOylkMQguJNFutazw_P9T3vI46cU3efnP3ZhET-M_Tt9BU0W1662D5__axNGOCXqGVEow6lJBYHGbg4ZXYp1SFm_a1/s320/Rasputin_PA.jpg" width="242" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Rasputin</td></tr>
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Opposition did not only take the form of socialists. Liberals, such as the Kadet Party, wished to have a form of parliament in a constitutional monarchy, as in Britain, or the more radical ones wanting a republic. There was even a small feminist movement, but it was extremely small, especially compared to movements in Japan, Germany, and other states. Members of the aristocracy could oppose the government for several reasons. The main ones were the Tsarina Alexandra and the famous priest Grigori Rasputin. A mixture of sexism and xenophobia meant that Alexandra received most of the abuse Nicholas II should have received - it was a taboo to blame the tsar himself. As the Tsarina had the opportunity to exercise some authority sexism meant that she was portrayed as the 'scheming woman', and as she was German she was accused of undermining Russia to support Germany. Although, she could exercise authoritarian ideas publicly - according to Leon Trotsky in his account of the revolution she apparently called for moderate socialist Alexander Kerensky to be hung. Rasputin was not well liked. A mystic he was brought into the tsarist court as it was believed that he could heal the heir Alexei of his haemophilia. He become popular with Tsar and Tsarina, and began influencing policy. Rasputin was accused of seducing Alexandra who would then get Nicholas to pass certain policies or fire certain officials at the mystic's whim. </div>
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<b>War, Revolution, and War</b></div>
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Russia kept on pushing eastwards building the Trans-Siberian Railway which was meant to be the crowning achievement of the empire. However, at the Siberian end of the railway Russian interests clashed with Japanese who were both trying to exert influence over Korea and Manchuria. This exploded into the 1904 Russo-Japanese War which proved to be a disaster for Russia. Nicholas personally took control so the ensuing mistakes he couldn't avoid. Russian soldiers were poorly supplied compared to the Japanese, and the navy was wiped out at the Battle of Tsushima. Russia lost the war, and revolution broke out. In January 1905 over 100,000 people, led by priest Georgy Gapon, and marched to the tsar's Winter Palace. While Gapon was opposed to some of the more radical demands, these demands were made. Workers' councils, called soviets, started emerging, and a young revolutionary Leon Trotsky encouraged workers to strike. 'Bloody Sunday' soon ensued - Cossacks charged into the crowd killing 1,500 men, women, and children. Across the empire sparks of protest emerged. Between January and May, 500 strikes broke out in Lodz, 90 in Warsaw, and the now famous sailors of Battleship <i>Potemkin </i>mutinied in May. Not all the uprisings, however, were done in solidarity against government repression. Antisemitic attacks swept across many areas of the empire - 41 Jews were murdered in Kishinev, Moldova in a period of 36 hours of massacres, in Zhitomir, Ukraine 400 were killed, and in Tomsk, Siberia saw antisemites lock Jews in buildings before setting them on fire.</div>
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Following the revolution, massacres, and strikes Nicholas formed the first parliament: the Duma of 1906. The Duma had a mixed existence. While being elected, allowing for debate about laws (which could only be passed by the Duma), and offering a way to challenge tsarist autocracy; at the same time it was incredibly weak. Nicholas made it clear that what he said goes, and repeatedly dissolved the Duma when it went against his wishes. Until his assassination in 1911, the Duma was dominated by Nicholas's personal ally Pyotr Stolypin - a conservative and monarchist who was keen to limit the spread of liberal democracy. Sheila Fitzpatrick had also emphasised how Stolypin further tried to curtail grassroots revolts through agricultural reform. 1905 was the largest peasant uprising in Russia since the 1700s, so Stolypin began a series of reforms to break this. Most peasants lived in a united community, called a <i>mir</i>, so Stolypin encouraged peasants to break off of the <i>mir </i>to become individual landowners, the eventual <i>kulaks</i>. Fitzpatrick has even stated that Lenin himself feared this reform, because if it had been as successful as Stolypin hoped it would have lost the urban proletariat a much needed ally. Stolypin was assassinated by a socialist while watching a play in Ukraine, although a conspiracy theory, echoed by novelist Alexander Solzhenitsyn, that the assassin was set-up by hard-right allies to the tsar who feared the minister's power. Meanwhile, the Duma sporadically continued. The Mensheviks used it, when they weren't in exile, to attack the tsar and aristocracy, but, as emphasised by Fitzpatrick, the workers were restless who started moving away from them. The Bolsheviks started taking advantage of this - using Lenin's idea of the vanguard party to join the workers in revolution in his 1902 work <i>What is to be Done? </i>- although this was difficult. Like the Mensheviks, many Bolsheviks were exiled. Then, in 1914, war broke out.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Russian troops in WWI</td></tr>
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Russia entered the <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2020/03/world-history-first-world-war.html">First World War</a> immediately in August 1914 on the side of the Entente. Like elsewhere across the world, entry into the war created a wave of nationalism in the Russian Empire, although this was mainly in the Russian regions. As St Petersburg sounded too German it was renamed Petrograd, as an example. It is no coincidence, that when things went bad during the war, that the tsarina was blamed. Nicholas took personal control of the Russian military and it is partially his ineptitude which resulted in the disastrous war for Russia. Although Russia had some victories, such as wiping out an Ottoman army in the Caucasus, it was a disaster - by mid-1915 Russia had lost its Polish lands. Poor infrastructure hit the mobility of the army - when the February Revolution broke out it took until May for Siberians to hear about it. As always, big personalities got in the way. Nicholas's ego was immense, but his skill was lacking, so there was not a coherent war policy. General Brusilov's offensive in 1916 against Austria could have been a greater push, possibly even knocking out the rival empire by taking Vienna, but other generals refused to change strategies to help. Domestically, the tsarina and Rasputin exercised great influence with the tsar focusing on the war. This dislike of the duo was so intense that a cabal of aristocrats assassinated Rasputin in 1916. Military disasters, and losing important areas to Germany, caused mass desertion. Although soldiers regularly received food this was at the expense of civilians who experienced food shortages, especially after the fall of Poland. Advancing and retreating armies looted villages and towns - resulting in pogroms in Jewish regions. The revolution was about to begin.</div>
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<b>The February Revolution</b></div>
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To avoid confusion it is important to note that, unlike the rest of Europe, Russia in 1917 still used the Julian calendar. It would only use the Gregorian calendar when the Bolsheviks took power. As a result, pre-Bolshevik dates are a month behind other dates consequently. On March 8 (February 23 in Russia) Petrograd Social Democrats on International Women's Day issued leaflets. Food production problems, rising inflation rates, and war setbacks had caused mass dissatisfaction with the regime, and the Social Democrats handed leaflets to women waiting in food lines. Their leaflets read:</div>
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<i>The government is guilty; it started the war and cannot end it. It is destroying the country and your starving is their fault. The capitalists are guilty; for their profit the war goes on. It's about time to tell them loud: Enough! Down with the criminal government and all its gang of thieves and murderers. Long live peace!</i></blockquote>
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Women started bread protests which inspired factory workers in the Vyborg District and the Putilov Factory. Activists joined the protests and protesters crossed the frozen Neva River where they clashed with the police beginning the revolution. Two days later Tsar Nicholas II ordered the garrison to put down the revolt but many units joined the crowd with a few killing their officers. Ships anchored in Helsinki and Kronstadt had sailors throwing their officers overboard, or into furnaces. The Duma urged Nicholas to implement immediate political measures but in response he dismissed the Duma. On March 12 the tsar's crack units, the Volynian Regiment, mutinied and joined the revolt. The same day two shadow governments were formed: the Provisional Government made of senior Duma members at the Tauride Palace, and the Petrograd soviet in another wing of the palace. The Provisional Government soon arrested some of the tsar's ministers although this was done to protect them from revolutionaries. With the monarchy losing all control on March 15 Nicholas II made this statement:</div>
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<i>In agreement with the State Duna, we have thought it best to abdicate the throne of the Russian state and to lay down the supreme power. Not wishing to part with our beloved son, we hand down our inheritance to our brother, Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich.</i></blockquote>
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The tsar's brother was chosen as Alexei was seen as being too sick, still suffering from haemophilia, and still underage. Michael, however, reigned for just a day ending Russian monarchy which had ruled for a thousand years, four hundred years of Tsardom, and three hundred years of Romanov rule.</div>
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<b>The Revolutionaries</b></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Stalin, Lenin, and Trotsky</td></tr>
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Before we get to October I want to quickly go over some of the leading revolutionaries of this period. Most famously, we have Vladimir Lenin. Born Vladimir Ulyanov he came from a family of socialist revolutionaries with his older brother being executed for his involvement in a plot to assassinate the tsar. Like many Russian socialists Lenin fled abroad, adopted a new name, and became involved in the various international leftist discussions. Lenin is primarily known for two contributions to Marxist theory: first, that imperialism was the final stage of capitalism so the end of capitalism requires national self-determination of oppressed peoples, and second, very much in line with Russian revolutionaries, that a vanguard party was required to guide the proletariat. Polish-Jewish Marxist Rosa Luxemburg vehemently disagreed with the idea of the vanguard party seeing it as a clique. Lenin became head of the Bolsheviks as his faction believed that the party should have restricted membership in contrast to the Mensheviks who disagreed. Speaking of Mensheviks, one of the key Mensheviks (who went over to the Bolsheviks after February) was Leon Trotsky. Born to a Ukrainian-Jewish family under the name Lev Bronstein he had a long history of political activism, being exiled to Siberia in 1899 due to it, and was influential in forming soviets during the 1905 Revolution. There was also Grigory Zinoviev, a Russian-Jewish Marxist who became Lenin's close ally; and also his future enemy Joseph Stalin. Born to a Georgian family, and originally destined to be a priest, he would become an editor for the Bolshevik paper <i>Pravda</i>. Finally, another revolutionary I want to mention is Alexandra Kollontai. Born to a Ukrainian-Cossack family, through her father, and a Finnish peasant family, through her mother. Kollontai would evolve from liberal to Marxist during a tour of Western Europe funded by her parents. Through political activism she would also be sent across Europe, where she played a crucial role in encouraging the feminist movement in Scandinavia. </div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Alexandra Kollontai</td></tr>
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<b>February to October</b></div>
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The February Revolution was seen by many Marxists as the bourgeois revolution against the monarchy, a socialist one could therefore be possible. Many started returning from exile - Kollontai was greeted by cheering soldiers when she entered Finland, and Trotsky instantly returned all the way from New York. Due to poor infrastructure exiles in Siberia heard that 'something' had happened in Petrograd months later, so they left to see what happened. At first the new Provisional Government of Russia's first republic was hopeful - a variety of parties sat in the new parliament led by socialist Alexander Kerensky. Observers outside Russia saw it as the state embracing liberal democracy. However, from both a bottom-up and top-down approach to history we can see how weak and unpopular the government was. Kerensky based his legitimacy on a coalition consisting of socialists, liberals, conservatives, and monarchists leading to an unstable system. The people of Russia had formed soviets across urban areas - most famously there was the Petrograd Soviet forming 'dual power'. This is a key communist idea, Lenin particularly advocated this before 1917, states that grassroots workers' governments would exist alongside liberal democracies to offer alternate organisations to the state. Soviets quickly grew due to government unpopularity and scarcities caused by the war. Women were especially mad - they were the ones to have started the revolution but remained out of politics. The small feminist movement was keen to remind men about the betrayal. The Provisional Government controversially chose to continue the war exacerbating the inequalities in a state which had already been exacerbated by the war.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The July Days</td></tr>
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During the February Revolution the Soviets had become powerful but the Government became distant from the Soviets; in early June soviets around the country sent representatives to Petrograd to the First All-Russia Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies. At the start of April Lenin presented his April Theses criticizing the apparent failures of the February Revolution and that power should lie with the soviets who should bring about socialism. Germany, wishing to disrupt Russia, smuggled Lenin into Russia via train from Switzerland most famously arriving in Finland. In April workers and soldiers protested in Petrograd due to the continuation of the war, and following another protest in July the state chose to brutally crush it and blame the Bolsheviks. Many Bolsheviks were arrested and Lenin had to go into hiding. The people were dissatisfied and started turning to the Bolsheviks seeing the moderate socialists as betraying them. A former soldier in Moscow said:</div>
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<i>You [The Provisional Government] have the audacity to say that freedom has come. But isn't your current power over the people that the bourgeoisie delivered to you, based on coercion?...The bourgeoisie is striving for democratic forms of governance because in them it sees the most convenient method of oppression and exploitation.</i></blockquote>
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Following the July Days Kerensky took over the government but anger at the government remained. Thanks to weakness he was willing to violence against deserters and protesters, such as sending troops to suppress the 'Tsaritsyn Republic' declared by radicalized soldiers and Bolsheviks. Then the Kornilov Affair happened. Commander-in-Chief General Lavr Kornilov wished to end left-wing protests, and some of his followers wanted him to seize power. However, he just wanted to hang soviet members and see order return to Petrograd. When Kerensky asked Kornilov to come to Petrograd to help restore order in September the general opted to purge the government, so Kerensky released Bolsheviks, including Trotsky's Red Guard, to stop him. Soldiers deserted Kornilov when the Red Guard infiltrated his army, and workers and railway workers went on strike disrupting his supply lines. In the end Kornilov's coup failed and there was a drastic swing to the left in the soviets and army. Thus the stage was set for October.</div>
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<b>October</b></div>
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Following the July Days Lenin had been hiding in Finland where he had been advocating armed revolution. In October he returned, in secret, to Petrograd to plan a revolution. On October 23 the Bolshevik Central Committee voted 10-2 to oust Kerensky's government, and they formed a committee under Trotsky to organize the revolution itself. They were so confident that they didn't even bother concealing their plans so Kerensky actually knew some details of it! However, Kerensky's weak position and, the radicalization of the urban masses and army meant there was little he could do other than seize the Bolshevik press, which he soon lost control of. On October 25 armed forces occupied railway stations and military strongholds while at Kronstadt sailors announced their allegiance to the Bolsheviks. The next day the Provisional Government's headquarters, the Winter Palace, was seized and ten years later was mythologized in, what has been regarded as a cinematic epic, Sergei Einstein's <i>October</i>. American journalist John Reed, who also witnessed the Mexican Revolution, reported asking soldiers if they were with the government; the soldier just replied smiling and said <i>'The government is no more'</i>. Despite popular depictions the seizing of the Winter Palace was not actually violent; often the October Revolution has been described as a bloodless revolution. What came after was, instead, bloody. Thus history was made.</div>
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However, there is a deep historiographical debate about the October Revolution. Richard Pipes famously argued that it was a coup due to Lenin's emphasis on the vanguard party; through this it was a small clique who seized power instead of being a widespread revolt. Even democratic socialist George Lichtheim argued this, although he is far more sympathetic to Lenin than Pipes is. Really from the 1980s in the West, a 'revisionist school' emerged which aimed to look at Soviet history from the bottom-up. Sheila Fitzpatrick is a key figure in this arguing that by looking at social history we can see a mass movement emerged under the Bolsheviks. Workers and peasants took heart in Lenin's calls for 'Peace, Bread, Land' and aided the October Revolution. Fitzpatrick has particularly emphasised that there was such an influx of workers into the party that it was impossible to keep a disciplined vanguard party. Sarah Badcock has argue that, to an extent, Lenin and the Bolsheviks took a lot of their rhetoric from the peasantry themselves, they were in fact keeping up with what the people wanted.</div>
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<b>World Revolution</b></div>
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As emphasised by Eric Hobsbawm, the Russian revolutionaries did not see itself as a national revolution but an international one. A key tenant of Marxist theory was the international liberation of the working-class, so exporting revolution was seen as a key tenant. The horrors of the Civil War meant that Bolshevik-style socialism only spread to Mongolia and Tannu Tuva, and even then only because of the Civil War, but there was a clear inspiration across the world. From 1917 to around 1923 a wave of revolutionary and Left-wing activity broke out across the world - Cuban tobacco workers formed soviets, Spanish anarchists rose up, revolutionary student movements broke out in Beijing, China and Cordoba, Argentina, and revolutionary Mexico placed Lenin alongside their murals of Zapata and Monteczuma. Ireland, the UK, France, Netherlands, Italy, China, Argentina, Mexico, India, Iran, Egypt, Australia, Hungary, and Germany were just some areas in the world to see revolutionary movement in some form. Most famously, and tragically, Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht led the <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2019/01/left-wing-and-other-history.html">Spartacist Uprising</a> in Berlin in January 1919. Brutally crushed it was one of several workers' uprisings in Germany. In the former Russian Empire various states separated themselves, (such as Finland, Ukraine, and Poland), and saw their own socialist risings - a civil war broke out in Finland, and anarchists under Nestor Makhno formed the Ukrainian Free Territory. In February 1919 the newly formed Polish Republic and the Bolsheviks went to war - the Bolsheviks hoped victory would pave a way to successful revolutions across Europe, while Poland wanted more land. However, the consequences of the Civil War, and the breaking of revolts worldwide, meant that 'Socialism in One Country' began to become Soviet policy. Although the Third International was formed, and a specific section was devoted to colonised peoples, 'the Toilers of the East', to continue revolution. After Lenin's death and Stalin's takeover internationalism became geared towards the propping up of the Soviet government.</div>
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<b>Civil War and Terror</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgkxCzFHUS26LpXhdWgAw6NVL4yCuB0yz_Lv8MY2SLhLUJnHAaZLZMEPxkro-VFfNQAjO4nDQfvhplWhCVB25fe-KLLzMuuGOARcGXpbhV_QfuEiLUacZtkCqSc0poBJnFbWrt6MxDcttIi/s1600/800px-American_troops_in_Vladivostok_1918_HD-SN-99-02013.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="491" data-original-width="800" height="196" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgkxCzFHUS26LpXhdWgAw6NVL4yCuB0yz_Lv8MY2SLhLUJnHAaZLZMEPxkro-VFfNQAjO4nDQfvhplWhCVB25fe-KLLzMuuGOARcGXpbhV_QfuEiLUacZtkCqSc0poBJnFbWrt6MxDcttIi/s320/800px-American_troops_in_Vladivostok_1918_HD-SN-99-02013.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">American troops in Vladivostok</td></tr>
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The conservative and liberal forces were not happy about the Bolshevik seizure of power. The 'White Armies' were founded, and funded by various capitalist states like the UK and France, with the intention of ousting the Bolsheviks. In order to defend the revolution Trotsky reorganised the Red Guards into a Red Army with local party commissars becoming key figures in the new force. There was no guarantee of success. Support for the Reds were largely in the cities and conscription in the rural communities won them no friends - often the Red Army resorted to executions to enforce conscription. Eager to leave the war the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany stripped most of the former empire of its land leaving many citizens angered. Making matters worse key cities such as Warsaw, Vilnius, and Riga, and rich farmland in Poland and Ukraine, were lost depriving the Soviets of much needed industry and farmland. Often forgotten in the Civil War were the left-wing and peasant armies which were formed to resist both Bolshevik and White forces. It is easy to see why the Civil War was so destructive - Jeremy Smith has described how nine armies were on Ukrainian land at one time. Lenin formed the Cheka as a way to route out potential enemies - this resulted in the mass killing of Cossacks and prostitutes. Meanwhile, the White Armies massacred ethnic minorities, especially Jews who were seen as double-agents and Bolshevik allies. Many depictions of Trotsky in White propaganda emphasised his Jewish heritage to incite antisemitism. It has been estimated that somewhere between 7 and 12 million people lost their lives during the war; through a mixture of direct killing, disease, and starvation entire communities vanished. Alliances were formed and vanished. Lenin and Makhno eagerly worked together to knock out the Whites from Ukraine, but afterwards Trotsky used the Red Army to wipe out the Free Territory.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh8Vu0vK0qwp7QpqkOzgOBSJjD0e3W3vKnfJPgrjUPQ-XsUu3EEwlp_PXhryoRYs94_Joi3Nz8Q-TxegMWdb0CQ_5QbJm9rIPwx3yDP8fABKMw6L1U8dHAIgId02n76WAyh_20TRojStYrp/s1600/220px-1921._%25D0%259D%25D0%25B5%25D1%2581%25D1%2582%25D0%25BE%25D1%2580_%25D0%259C%25D0%25B0%25D1%2585%25D0%25BD%25D0%25BE_%25D0%25B2_%25D0%25BB%25D0%25B0%25D0%25B3%25D0%25B5%25D1%2580%25D0%25B5_%25D0%25B4%25D0%25BB%25D1%258F_%25D0%25BF%25D0%25B5%25D1%2580%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BC%25D0%25B5%25D1%2589%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BD%25D0%25BD%25D1%258B%25D1%2585_%25D0%25BB%25D0%25B8%25D1%2586_%25D0%25B2_%25D0%25A0%25D1%2583%25D0%25BC%25D1%258B%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B8%25D0%25B8.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="340" data-original-width="220" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh8Vu0vK0qwp7QpqkOzgOBSJjD0e3W3vKnfJPgrjUPQ-XsUu3EEwlp_PXhryoRYs94_Joi3Nz8Q-TxegMWdb0CQ_5QbJm9rIPwx3yDP8fABKMw6L1U8dHAIgId02n76WAyh_20TRojStYrp/s320/220px-1921._%25D0%259D%25D0%25B5%25D1%2581%25D1%2582%25D0%25BE%25D1%2580_%25D0%259C%25D0%25B0%25D1%2585%25D0%25BD%25D0%25BE_%25D0%25B2_%25D0%25BB%25D0%25B0%25D0%25B3%25D0%25B5%25D1%2580%25D0%25B5_%25D0%25B4%25D0%25BB%25D1%258F_%25D0%25BF%25D0%25B5%25D1%2580%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BC%25D0%25B5%25D1%2589%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BD%25D0%25BD%25D1%258B%25D1%2585_%25D0%25BB%25D0%25B8%25D1%2586_%25D0%25B2_%25D0%25A0%25D1%2583%25D0%25BC%25D1%258B%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B8%25D0%25B8.jpg" width="207" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Nestor Makhno</td></tr>
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Fighting dragged on until 1923 with the putting down of the Yakut Rebellion, and the Soviet Union came out of the ashes of war. A key reason why was the disunion of the Whites against the unity of the Reds. The generals Kolchak, Denikin, and Yudenich were key figures in the Whites, but were bitterly divided between them about who should have power. Other aspects of the Whites were united only behind their dislike of the Bolsheviks - some wanted a Romanov restoration, others wanted a constitutional monarchy, others a liberal republic. Late 1918 a Bolshevik officer took it upon himself to execute the royal family which deprived many Whites of the reason about why they were fighting. Lenin quickly moved to liquidate both the soviets, and the Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries, so the Reds had a united movement. This united movement also allowed Lenin to create War Communism. This policy would eventually merge into 'state capitalism' or 'bureaucratic socialism' which would characterise later Soviet economics - the state would nationalise and seize all industries to convert it for the war effort. </div>
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<b>Lenin's Rule</b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjmxnGa3nRmGFHYwbYsE-eLsiHQ1oBsYJYDo7luzbwUKbJwgvnQDdWHpLlgNiEpDT5MpJKAyy9AEcF3fNgqBVeEdWzyM2n6H9ubQiUhSZwUiGVZb-saeGRpui8S5wTBgIokiRbC4kYo-BdF/s1600/aaed002508_1024x1024.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1024" data-original-width="686" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjmxnGa3nRmGFHYwbYsE-eLsiHQ1oBsYJYDo7luzbwUKbJwgvnQDdWHpLlgNiEpDT5MpJKAyy9AEcF3fNgqBVeEdWzyM2n6H9ubQiUhSZwUiGVZb-saeGRpui8S5wTBgIokiRbC4kYo-BdF/s320/aaed002508_1024x1024.jpeg" width="214" /></a></div>
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Following the destructive Civil War the newly formed Soviet Union was experimental. The Soviet government was keen to distance itself from the old Russian Empire, so there were attempts to not create another Russian state. Part of this was the name - the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). The new state was imagined as a series of Soviet Republics which were envisaged to be equal; within these Soviet Republics would be smaller republics and oblasts devoted to ethnic minorities, like Tatars and Chechens in Russia. Yiddish saw a revival and Jews managed to enter higher education in large numbers for the first time. Lenin swept away the old tsarist laws, and although he brought several authoritarian laws back including restrictions on the press and the death penalty, many laws were left discarded. Due to this, laws prohibiting homosexuality and abortion were reversed, although some Soviet Republics like Azerbaijan brought anti-homosexual laws back. Women's emancipation was mixed. Women were a clear minority in government positions, abortion could only be done by doctors leaving rural women unable to have them, and the Civil War reinforced concepts of masculinity. However, women managed to carve a place for themselves in society. Women used new laws to grant them equality in the workplace, for example, and used welfare to leave the household. Several women further managed to hold significant places within the Soviet government. Alexandra Kollontai made history by becoming the first woman to hold an official role in a cabinet becoming Commissar of Welfare. Kollontai started implementing an impressive welfare system which managed to survive most of the USSR's history, and wanted to challenge the family structure to create a libertarian child-raising system. Instead of the family unit raising the child, instead a community would raise the child together. Nadezhda Krupskaya, Lenin's wife, was incredibly important in the government, and was later Minister of Education. Finally, for a brief period of time we saw an explosion of new, creative culture. The burgeoning film industry was revolutionised by Sergei Einstein who produced historical movies including <i>October</i>, <i>Battleship Potemkin</i>, and <i>Ivan the Terrible </i>which aimed to tell a story where the masses were the protagonist. Einstein is now regarded as being one of film's greatest directors.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-PZFKkgTHvm3cFPGn_10d10C4EcQkRMHbJQ6BoB3PDPQ4iIH1mQmkPK8wMLtqT-CDwRcAMtpLHfM9qTAazrGJjgl4K7Sh8IfqXx0O3L7Bj_ZGk1GftYwFbhlNTiPmqhDutQhbmSke1CBT/s1600/Krupskaja_1890_%2528cropped%2529_2019-11-22.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="623" data-original-width="378" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-PZFKkgTHvm3cFPGn_10d10C4EcQkRMHbJQ6BoB3PDPQ4iIH1mQmkPK8wMLtqT-CDwRcAMtpLHfM9qTAazrGJjgl4K7Sh8IfqXx0O3L7Bj_ZGk1GftYwFbhlNTiPmqhDutQhbmSke1CBT/s320/Krupskaja_1890_%2528cropped%2529_2019-11-22.jpg" width="194" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Krupskaya</td></tr>
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One important policy was the New Economic Policy (NEP). With the Civil War destroying the economy, cultivated land dropped by 62% during the war, Lenin needed a quick way to get it running again. Relying on several figures, like Nikolai Bukharin, the NEP was designed, in Lenin's own words, to be 'a free market and capitalism, both subject to state control'. He even allowed entrepreneurs into the newly formed Communist Party to lead the new economic system. If the soviets had been allowed to reform the NEP may not have needed to become so important to the USSR - the Catalonian anarchists during the Spanish Civil War showed the benefits of direct worker control - but Lenin intended it to only be a temporary policy. Maybe if Lenin had even lived longer it could have been temporary. From 1921 Lenin's health rapidly deteriorated, and in 1922 he experienced his first of many strokes. In January 1924 one last stroke killed Lenin, and with it the fate of the Soviet Union shifted.</div>
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<b>The Rise of Stalin</b></div>
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One of the famous last things which Lenin wrote was a letter denouncing basically all his potential heirs: Trotsky, Zinoviev, Kamenev, Stalin, Bukharin, and Pyatakov. He also warned of a potential split in the party between Trotsky and Stalin, and that Stalin must be expelled from any authority. Stalin's aggressive attitude to other party members, especially Krupskaya, and violence in Georgia had turned Lenin firmly against Stalin. At the same time, several rank-and-file members, and some higher up members, criticised the bureaucracy in the party - especially Lenin centralising power in himself following the Civil War. The Politburo, a committee, was originally designed to managed the USSR; although not resembling worker rule it was seen as being better than one authoritarian ruler. A split emerged regardless - the 'Right' under Stalin, Zinoviev, and Kamenev, and the 'Left' under Trotsky. Trotsky was soon outmaneuvered due to his insistence solely on writing, and his recent entry to the Bolsheviks followed by a quick rise which made others view him as an opportunist. Meanwhile, the others could claim a long membership in the party, and for making sacrifices in the lead-up to October. By 1925 the Right had managed to demote Trotsky, but the cunning Stalin planned to centralise power into his hands. C.L.R. James in his often forgotten <i>World Revolution</i> has discussed how Stalin, at times clumsily, forced himself into a theoretician role to gain credibility in the party. While in 1925 Krupskaya managed to side with the Right to demote Trotsky, afterwards she threw her weight behind Zinoviev and Kamenev. Both of them had the support of the Petrograd and Moscow masses behind them. Stalin used cries of factionalism, and using antisemitism to create distrust towards Zinoviev and Trotsky, to pave his way towards becoming party leader in 1927. Stalinism had begun.</div>
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<b>Stalinist Rule</b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBdPQRZzKjHNFHk2aGuQmX5SyXOn4Te-5zEN4k3CS05Ly2Q9HQ8M4bGRb6qkK1V_-G4ch30uYA9J72MF1-cwPLO7rN8-nZyhqdd03bYxi1uXty2AfYHcTVW7za9ytokf6dpFETvUC6axHy/s1600/3_22.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="894" data-original-width="615" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBdPQRZzKjHNFHk2aGuQmX5SyXOn4Te-5zEN4k3CS05Ly2Q9HQ8M4bGRb6qkK1V_-G4ch30uYA9J72MF1-cwPLO7rN8-nZyhqdd03bYxi1uXty2AfYHcTVW7za9ytokf6dpFETvUC6axHy/s320/3_22.jpg" width="220" /></a></div>
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Stalinism has often been characterised as being totalitarian - Sheila Fitzpatrick has contested this by stating that the state did not control every aspect of life in the USSR. The occasional purges, although caused by Stalin's own paranoia, indicated that there were some aspects of opposition despite the intense totalitarianism of the state. It is Stalin who reversed many of the progressive policies of the early-1920s - women's movement was restricted, abortion was made illegal, and homosexuality was criminalised across the USSR. Despite being Georgian, he brought back Russification policies; something which we'll discuss soon. A key part of Stalinist rule was the continuation of managed capitalism through rapid industrialisation, and the building of a cult of personality. Even before his formal seizure of power in 1927, he began instituting a cult of personality having cities named after him. The new anthem replaced <i>L'Internationale</i> with the famous Soviet anthem which praised himself; his image was placed in public places; and party propaganda portrayed him as creating the new 'Soviet Man'. However, he could not create this out of nowhere, so he created a cult around Lenin. Using the popular legacy of Lenin he could solidify his own image. Petrograd was renamed Leningrad; the ideology Marxism-Bolshevism was shaped to become Marxism-Leninism; and Lenin's writings were geared towards supporting his policies. While Lenin viewed the NEP and 'Socialism in One Country' as temporary policies, Stalin used them to create continuity with his own rule. Even the idea that Lenin intended one permanent leader came from Stalin's rewriting of history. The rapid industrialisation in the Five Year Plans did quickly industrialise the USSR, but it regularly fell short of expected designs. Naturally, this fact was hidden until the collapse of the USSR in 1991. </div>
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Despite the absolute power which Stalin held, he had to ensure that he was supported by not only the party, but also the masses. The Five Year Plans intended to create a proletariat as a bulwark against a possibly reactionary peasantry, and welfare policies were ascribed to Stalin himself. The cult of personality was a way to ensure he had public support. Of course, if need be people were disappeared. From 1934 the NKVD was formed to 'liquidate' potential enemies through execution or imprisonment in the brutal gulags - if the guards didn't kill you the climate potentially could do so. Enemies were deposed of in various ways - often exile and then execution. Trotsky was expelled from the USSR and Zinoviev was exiled to Kazakhstan before their eventual deaths - Zinoviev after a 1936 show trial and Trotsky via an icepick in Mexico in 1940. Show trials were another way to build support - openly show enemies and scare others into silence. Especially between 1936 and 1938 these executions became known as the Great Purges - over 680,000 were killed. Like-minded individuals were promoted, Trosim Lysenko being one, the figure behind disastrous agricultural policies. Lysenko was a Stalin loyalist so was promoted despite his theories being seen as pseudo-scientific. The USSR had some of the best geneticists in the world, but Lysenko's opposition to genetics (calling DNA fictitious) meant that some were even purged for being 'traitors'. Arguing in favour of hybridisation and planting seeds extremely close together it caused mass crop failures.</div>
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<b>Famine and Ethnic Cleansing</b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgTJeWHe7NH2t_m8NgUkpHToKUOXXAZFmgBjNvOtM2XiDV_H84Y_jwJZIlJc_4ksYFdDsVLU_QLJq02CRn0r-ZnZKCveQyjj2Jwi5KEhyphenhyphenzXSQKuAKbzXZ4SoIywoSXWx0ebpOKzhJstADa7/s1600/GolodomorKharkiv.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1191" data-original-width="1600" height="238" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgTJeWHe7NH2t_m8NgUkpHToKUOXXAZFmgBjNvOtM2XiDV_H84Y_jwJZIlJc_4ksYFdDsVLU_QLJq02CRn0r-ZnZKCveQyjj2Jwi5KEhyphenhyphenzXSQKuAKbzXZ4SoIywoSXWx0ebpOKzhJstADa7/s320/GolodomorKharkiv.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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One of the darkest aspects of Stalin's rule was the Great Famine or Holodomor. This was a devastating famine which broke out in 1932 and 1933 in Ukraine and western Russia causing the deaths of around 3.5 million people. There have been intense debates about what caused the famine - ranging from weather to purposeful human actions. Part of it was associated with the new land reforms. Soviet officials had long pondered about land collectivisation - many desired it, although Trotsky did argue that it was 'useless', but many feared that forcing it would be a disaster. Stalin, however, pressed on the collectivising the farms of the kulaks. Those who resisted could face deportation with Neil Faulkner estimating that the gulag population rose from 30,000 in 1928 to 2 million by 1930 to 5 million by 1935. The forced collectivisation mixed with Lysenko's theories had the potential for disaster, and droughts ensured that it was. Ukraine is known as a 'bread basket' - a fertile land which can produce lots of food. For this reason, when a crop fails in a bread basket it is devastating. Consequently, millions starved, and human actions made it even worse. The richer peasants burnt crops and killed animals to stop the state seizing it, and the state also funnelled food to the cities; as a result rural areas had even less food. Especially Ukraine has argued that the Holodomor was a genocide; that Stalin purposefully denied rural areas of food in order to punish Ukrainian nationalism. We do not know if this was Stalin's aim, but it is clear how destructive it was for Ukrainians. </div>
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Russificiation policies can also be seen as a form of cultural genocide; by enforcing Russian in schools and silencing non-Russian cultural forms it was an attempt to wipe out these cultures. This is a clear break in earlier Soviet policies it attempted to balance various nationalities, and it is no coincidence that de-Stalinisation of the 1950s saw a reversal of this policy. Part of this was to appeal to Russians in the non-Russian regions which gave increased rights to non-Russians at the expense of Russians. The 1930s and 1940s also saw various attacks on minorities deemed to be 'unreliable'. During the Purges antisemitism was used to attack Trotsky and Zinoviev - ironically capitalist states used antisemitism to attack the Soviet Union claiming it was ran by Jews. Although Stalin made antisemitism illegal, even punishable by death, it was still used as a dogwhistle to delegitimise opponents. Even the creation of the Jewish Autonomous Oblast was not an attempt to protect Jews - he imagined it as creating a loyal community near Manchuria to protect against an expansionist Japan. Many small national groups were expelled from their homes - 202,000 Crimean Tatars were given 15 minutes warning before their expulsion in 1944. It took until 1956 for them to be able to return home. </div>
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<b>Conclusion</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjvjZIcktFOv8_H3xtd-CozFcFJh1BWxJOonaxLxSuUaaoKLNo_DA_WmCF6e1ULnZF76C6upA01OBl9Z0JSYUGBxGSEQXXo8yEc4_yMu1Vd6FB1uXuih7XKMQYtCPS4uldStuM2TCD8_-rI/s1600/photo1jpg.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="450" data-original-width="338" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjvjZIcktFOv8_H3xtd-CozFcFJh1BWxJOonaxLxSuUaaoKLNo_DA_WmCF6e1ULnZF76C6upA01OBl9Z0JSYUGBxGSEQXXo8yEc4_yMu1Vd6FB1uXuih7XKMQYtCPS4uldStuM2TCD8_-rI/s320/photo1jpg.jpg" width="240" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Statue of Lenin in Moscow</td></tr>
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The October Revolution was one of the most important events in human history, seeing a clear attempt to break with the old order to create the first workers' state. Although it can be argued that the revolution was 'betrayed', regardless it inspired a series of mass movements both in the USSR and elsewhere to fight for a better world. While bogged down in bureaucracy, the USSR did offer access to housing, employment, education, and food which millions would be unable to otherwise. The collapse of the USSR in 1991, and the implementation of unrestricted capitalism was a demographic disaster for the average person. Like many things in history, the Russian Revolution and the early Soviet Union offers a contradictory and complex legacy.</div>
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The sources I have used are as follows:</div>
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-Eric Hobsbawm, <i>The Age of Extremes,1914-1991</i>, (London: 1994)</div>
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-C.L.R. James, <i>World Revolution, 1917-1936: The Rise and Fall of the Communist International</i>, First Prism Edition, (New York: 2011)</div>
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-Slavoj Zizek, <i>Lenin 2017</i>, (London: 2017)</div>
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-Sheila Fitzpatrick, <i>Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Lifes in Extraordinary Times, Soviet Russia in the 1930s</i>, (Oxford: 1999)</div>
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-Anita Kingler, 'Sarah Badcock on Russia’s revolutions from a provincial perspective', <i><a href="http://research.shca.ed.ac.uk/csmch/2020/01/29/sarah-badcock-russias-revolutions-provincial-perspective/">Centre for the Study of Modern and Contemporary History</a></i>, (29/01/2020), [Accessed 01/05/2020]</div>
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-China Mieville, <i>October: The Story of the Russian Revolution</i>, (London: 2017)</div>
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-Ronald Grigor Suny, (ed.), <i>The Cambridge History of Russia: Vol. III The Twentieth Century</i>, (Cambridge: 2006)</div>
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-John Reed, <i>Ten Days That Shook the World</i>, 100th Anniversary Edition, (New York: 2017)</div>
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-Neil Faulkner, <i>A People's History of the Russian Revolution</i>, (London: 2017)</div>
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-Orlando Figes, <i>A People's Tragedy: A History of the Russian Revolution</i>, (New York: 1996)</div>
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-Leon Trotsky, <i>History of the Russian Revolution</i>, Haymarket Books Edition, (Chicago: 2008)</div>
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-Sheila Fitzpatrick, <i>The Russian Revolution</i>, Second Edition, (Oxford: 1994)</div>
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Next time we will be looking at the horrors of Nazi rule, and one of the darkest parts of human history. For other World History posts we have a list <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/p/world-history.html">here</a>, and for blog updates please see our <a href="https://www.facebook.com/TwibyHistoryGeekStuff/">Facebook</a> or catch me on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/lewistwiby?lang=en">@LewisTwiby</a>.</div>
Lewis Twibyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03565517444017278980noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6707020941988899278.post-73993123776018406982020-04-26T09:04:00.000-07:002020-04-26T09:04:04.846-07:00Left-Wing and the 'Other' History: The Australian History Wars<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh-TrJuu0afDaPID_EelJfVr4wG0GVN43msRC3z3xZFKEPQWLcisj6xHIwBOwcv-R_6CNFJ16jcBo1d3sgJv15kj9uTV6YbO4MvRQPNk15dIvsnwzn_NcQZuC7AsnShLipdrpqfKSJOX-Mi/s1600/Austalian-massacres.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="800" data-original-width="1200" height="213" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh-TrJuu0afDaPID_EelJfVr4wG0GVN43msRC3z3xZFKEPQWLcisj6xHIwBOwcv-R_6CNFJ16jcBo1d3sgJv15kj9uTV6YbO4MvRQPNk15dIvsnwzn_NcQZuC7AsnShLipdrpqfKSJOX-Mi/s320/Austalian-massacres.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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Whenever academic history and popular history intersect during a major shift in historiography we see intense debates about the study of the past. Often they become embroiled in a 'culture war' with Left-wing and Right-wing figures becoming associated with a certain viewpoint of history. For example, there were the volatile debates about 'truth' and 'accuracy' surrounding the <i>testimonio </i>of Guatemalan Maya activist Rigoberta Menchu; there were intense discussions in Poland on culpability in the Holocaust following the publication of Jan Gross's <i>Neighbors </i>in 2001, which detailed the Jedwabne pogrom; and, around the centenary of the start of the First World War there were debates in Britain over the war in British popular memory. One of the most famous examples of this clash is the History Wars in Australia. Especially prominent in the 1990s and 2000s academics and historians were split into two: those who argued that Australian identity is built on the backs of the genocide of Aboriginals, and those who argue this is an exaggeration. </div>
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<b>Background</b></div>
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In World History we looked at the settlement of Australia, which you can read <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2020/02/world-history-australia-and-new-zealand.html">here</a>, and reading it you can see which side of the debate I take. The 'History Wars' have had a long precursor, and what is most important to remember is that these debates were largely between white academics. Although, indigenous voices are present - especially in the accounts of the Stolen Generation resulting in a 1997 report - it is white academics and politicians who are making these debates. I want to emphasise this as Aboriginal Australians have been emphasising this aspect of Australian history throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. In academia the seeds of the History Wars were planted in 1968 when anthropologist William Stanner used the term the 'Great Australian Silence' during a publicised lecture. He argued that a 'cult of disremembering' characterised Australian historiography and national identity, where the history of the Aboriginal peoples and Torres Strait Islanders becomes a footnote. Furthermore, the genocidal violence done against them, and the continued repression were forgotten, and a consequent result was that Australian history was 'incomplete'. Stanner's lecture was clearly inspired by two major changes rocking both Australia and the world: the New Left and subaltern rights. </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgRLUSLWbziWW7CVYCEE2bnQZRZa9z7NtsgsiFYEYIUTcehyjh0A70AB9VlUK7P2xQVLbkF2k0PG3u1OkQSv3TZEinSgoHpd_VKyPi_QZQANdNiYXlSyK50pLKXnU3jo871MgNkM0Y4ELa1/s1600/QVB135lg.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="717" data-original-width="1076" height="213" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgRLUSLWbziWW7CVYCEE2bnQZRZa9z7NtsgsiFYEYIUTcehyjh0A70AB9VlUK7P2xQVLbkF2k0PG3u1OkQSv3TZEinSgoHpd_VKyPi_QZQANdNiYXlSyK50pLKXnU3jo871MgNkM0Y4ELa1/s320/QVB135lg.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">A portrayal of the Stolen Generation entitled <i>The Taking of the Children</i> on the 1999 Great Australian Clock, Queen Victoria Building, Sydney, by artist Chris Cooke</span></td></tr>
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The 1960s, especially around 1968, saw a resurgence in libertarian Left-wing thought which has become known as the New Left. This was an umbrella term for a wide range of activists and political theorists - this ranged from the hippy movement, anti-Vietnam War activism, post-modernism, a new wave of anarchist thought, and a new wave of Maoist thought. Linked to this was increased activism from subaltern peoples worldwide desiring greater rights - this included African-American activism, the rise of Second Wave Feminism, the gay rights movement, and the birth of the West Papuan independence movement. In Australia, there was also a movement by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders to challenge racism and discrimination which they faced in society. Among the claims were for a return of stolen land, respect for indigenous rights, and justice for the 'Stolen Generation'. The Stolen Generation was actually a series of generations, technically beginning under British rule in the 1860s and ending in the 1970s, where indigenous peoples were forcibly taken from their families to be 'fostered'. This policy was not limited to Australia - America and Canada also had similar policies. The indigenous rights movement and Stanner influenced a new wave of historiography which aimed to tell Australia's history from below; it aimed to write indigenous communities back into history.</div>
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<b>Beginning of the History Wars</b></div>
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In the 1980s and early-1990s the History Wars started to begin. By this time Australian Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islanders were pushing for the return of land, equal rights, and justice for the Stolen Generation, but now they were getting gains. As expected, any movement of a subaltern is met with a reactionary movement, and there were pushbacks against these developments. It took form in quite unusual ways as well - in <i>Crocodile Dundee </i>(1986) the titular character says that Aboriginals and whites are both 'fleas on the land' about the return of land. This created a false equivalency between the two parties. What really kicked off the History Wars was the government of prime minister Paul Keating (1991-1996). Keating wanted to move further away from Britain, such as wanting Australia to put less emphasis on ANZAC Day as an example. Part of this was Keating's intervention in history by supporting the new line of historiography and emphasising that Australia had to recognise the continued repression of indigenous communities. Among this, was the creation of an inquiry in 1995 about the Stolen Generation policy resulting in the <i>Bringing Them Home </i>report of 1997 which aimed to highlight the trauma and consequences of the policy based on oral testimony. Part of this was a genuine attempt by Keating to foster a sense of 'One Australia' by encouraging an embracing of multiculturalism. However, it was also a cynical political move. Keating's Labor party had a long history of involvement in the Stolen Generation, and the White Australia Policy - a virulently racist immigration policy. Unfortunately, Keating was using the trauma of indigenous peoples to distance Labour from its culpability in the past. However, his involvement is what sparked the History Wars.</div>
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<b>The History Wars</b></div>
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In 1993 conservative historian Geoffrey Blainey wrote an article which attacked both Keating and the new historiography. His coining of the names for the two 'sides' has since became the common terminology during the History Wars, so I will use the terms here. Blainey said that Australia was moving away from the 'Three Cheers View', which emphasised a positive rendition of Australian history, to an unwarranted 'Black Armband' history, which emphasised the legacies of racism and colonialism. This began a series of heated debates, which translated into popular mediums like TV and paper opinion pieces, between the 'Black Armband' and 'Three Cheers View' of Australian history. However, it fully became a 'war' when Keating's successor, John Howard, intervened. Howard was from the conservative Liberal Party, so he opposed the re-evaluation of Australian history by the new historiography. Howard fiercely criticised the 'Black Armband' and used the typical tropes of a Right-wing culture war stating that 'soft-left' political-correctness was 'infiltrating' universities. His Labor successor, Kevin Rudd, further criticised the 'Black Armband' history stating that:</div>
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<i>Time to leave behind us the polarisation that began to infect our every discussion of our nation's past. To go beyond the so-called "black arm" view that refused to confront some hard truths about our past, as if our forebears were all men and women of absolute nobility, without spot or blemish. But time, too, to go beyond the view that we should only celebrate the reformers, the renegades and revolutionaries, thus neglecting or even deriding the great stories of our explorers, of our pioneers, and of our entrepreneurs. Any truthful reflection of our nation's past is that these are all part of the rich fabric of our remarkable story ...</i></blockquote>
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Two key topics surrounded the History Wars: the question of genocide and Stolen Generation. Conservative historians argued that allegations of genocide were either exaggerated or entirely fabricated by more Left-wing historians. One of the key figures in this was Keith Windschuttle who wrote two books entitled <i>The Fabrication of Aboriginal History </i>- the first calling the genocide of Tasmanians an exaggeration or an outright fabrication, and the second that the Stolen Generation was a myth. His main opponent in the ring was Robert Manne who ended up accusing Windschuttle of genocide denial. Among the claims by Windschuttle, Blainey, and other academics arguments was the the sources used to 'prove' a genocide happened. However, key historians showed how flawed Windschuttle's book <i>Fabrication </i>was - Henry Reynolds highlighted how Tasmanian settlers regularly used terms like 'extermination' in their diaries, and Lyndal Ryan has corroborated this by showing how there are many sites where massacres took place. What is particularly insidious, 'Three Cheers View', mainly social commentater Andrew Bolt, went as far as to call <i>Bringing Them Home </i>was an outright lie! Robert Manne tore Bolt apart with a basic point - Bolt never actually used sources to back up his claim. </div>
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<b>Since the 2000s</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjGbcvPnkETSDgWIVg93TPXOMj5O5q-pseBBM_hl1WY5g_495FmJbnrIzR6ZtHlyl438_mB11JoqYZdYG_Jj_kIpnJT5WHF578oZ-tR-LLeN3HEYmNrFLfb1WY87duwNw1dbNBEbuPx4Bxp/s1600/download.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="245" data-original-width="206" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjGbcvPnkETSDgWIVg93TPXOMj5O5q-pseBBM_hl1WY5g_495FmJbnrIzR6ZtHlyl438_mB11JoqYZdYG_Jj_kIpnJT5WHF578oZ-tR-LLeN3HEYmNrFLfb1WY87duwNw1dbNBEbuPx4Bxp/s1600/download.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">In 2016 the History Wars continue</td></tr>
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The History Wars have continued to periodically plague discussions of history. At the end of the first peak of the History Wars in 2003 Stuart Macintyre and Anna Clark released <i>The History Wars</i>, a book which I used a lot in writing this post, to explain the debates. It is an understatement to say that the 'Three Cheers View' did not like it - Windschuttle accused it of making the 'Three Cheers' a 'caricature', while Greg Melleuish said the book comes from 'pro-communist polemics of the Cold War'. I would criticise Anton Froeyman's attempts to discuss the History Wars and German <i>Historikerstreit</i>, a series of debates on the Holocaust, who argued that the highly personal attacks by both sides in both debates meant that an 'objective' history could not be written. However, Froeyman does not acknowledge that this was not like other historical debates, such as whether the famous African Olaudah Equiano was actually born in Nigeria or the US, but about whether a genocide happened (in the case of the History Wars). This is especially a shame as his discussion on the History Wars is extremely insightful. An 'objective', meet-in-the-middle history cannot be written when one side was denying genocide. As Australia is facing a similar rise in xenophobia and Right-wing governments, the History Wars will still rage on. In settler societies the nation is always built upon the exploitation, and often the outright genocide, of the indigenous communities. Consequently, any history which wants to entirely portray the nation as spotless will result in the denial of genocide.</div>
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The sources I have used are as follows:</div>
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-Stuart Macintyre and Anna Clark, <i>The History Wars</i>, (Melbourne: 2003)</div>
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-Lorenzo Veracini, 'A Prehistory of Australia's History Wars: The Evolution of Aboriginal History during the 1970s and 1980s', <i>Australian Journal of Politics and History</i>, 52:3, (2006), 439-454</div>
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-Neil Levi, '“No Sensible Comparison”? The Place of the Holocaust in Australia's History Wars', <i>History and Memory</i>, 19:1, (2007), 124-156</div>
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-Anton Froeyman, 'The ideal of objectivity and the public role of the historian: some lessons from the <i>Historikerstreit</i> and the History Wars', <i>The Journal of Theory and Practice</i>, 20:2, (2016), 217-234</div>
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-<a href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/IndigLRes/stolen/index.html">Bringing Them Home</a></div>
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Thank you for reading, for other Left-Wing and the 'Other' History posts we have a list <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/p/left-wing-and-other-history.html">here</a>. For other blog updates please see our <a href="https://en-gb.facebook.com/TwibyHistoryGeekStuff/">Facebook</a> or catch me on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/lewistwiby?lang=en">@LewisTwiby</a>.</div>
Lewis Twibyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03565517444017278980noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6707020941988899278.post-75805309117107334192020-04-19T03:41:00.000-07:002020-04-19T03:41:14.213-07:00Comics Explained: Galactus<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_o1o5cvjayJdMD4nHActVkiihcWkhlXvZd9NUtJ3Oya_rcJeP_rIGbm_9J3cJ2Tf70aRbecvuYqHCH8jvNel5lDPTW7EXjxkkIWBS8nlPF16bMh8gILCESHOB3T2f-i14wQoPKs1Too2e/s1600/Galactus_%25282018%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="385" data-original-width="257" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_o1o5cvjayJdMD4nHActVkiihcWkhlXvZd9NUtJ3Oya_rcJeP_rIGbm_9J3cJ2Tf70aRbecvuYqHCH8jvNel5lDPTW7EXjxkkIWBS8nlPF16bMh8gILCESHOB3T2f-i14wQoPKs1Too2e/s320/Galactus_%25282018%2529.jpg" width="213" /></a></div>
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Created by the legendary pair Stan Lee and Jack Kirby Galactus is one of the most powerful beings in the Marvel Universe. The only beings more powerful are the beings which literally embody aspects of the universe, or the universe itself. Galactus is if a hurricane had the powers of a god - a natural force beyond concepts of good and evil with the ability to create and destroy. Does to his popularity Galactus has made a regular appearance in comics since the 1960s with him appearing in many major events, even just briefly, ranging from <i>Infinity Gauntlet </i>to <i>Age of Ultron</i>. First, we need to see why Galactus was created by Lee and Kirby.</div>
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<b>Creation</b></div>
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In his biography of Stan Lee Bob Batchelor has described the 'Marvel Revolution' of the 1960s as being a slightly fraught time despite successes. Marvel's owner Martin Goodman was only interested in profit, so he kept a close eye on comic sales, and if a genre started to dip he would pull the plug. Lee and Kirby knew how fickle the comic market could be, so they experimented a lot with characters and concepts with the view that Goodman could cancel it at any moment. As a result, writers at Marvel were eager in the 1960s to experiment with storytelling because otherwise they might not have another chance. This led to the creation of Galactus. Lee was interested in creating an ultimate villain, one which potentially was beyond good and evil. Kirby was smitten with the idea, and can be credited with creating what would become Galactus. Looking for inspiration for a villain, and his heralds of destruction, Kirby turned to the Bible:</div>
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<i>My inspirations were the fact that I had to make sales and come up with characters that were no longer stereotypes. In other words, I couldn't depend on gangsters. I had to get something new. For some reason, I went to the Bible and I came up with Galactus. And there I was in front of this tremendous figure, who I knew very well because I've always felt him. I certainly couldn't treat him in the same way I could any ordinary mortal. And I remember in my first story, I had to back away from him to resolve that story. The Silver Surfer is, of course, the fallen angel. When Galactus relegated him to Earth, he stayed on Earth, and that was the beginning of his adventures. They were figures that had never been used before in comics. They were above mythic figures. And of course they were the first gods.</i></blockquote>
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DC fans might notice that this inspiration may have shaped the later New Gods when Kirby was writing for DC. Anyhow, the duo planned to go all out with Galactus creating which would become known as the 'Galactus Trilogy'.</div>
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<b>The Galactus Trilogy</b></div>
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The trilogy would begin in <i>Fantastic Four #48 </i>debuting in March 1966. The Fantastic Four had always been used to investigate Marvel's space and celestial stories, and the comic opens with their enemies, the Skrulls, desperately trying to hide their planet from the angelic Silver Surfer. The Fantastic Four are visited by a tall, bald humanoid calling himself Uatu the Watcher. Watchers are an ancient and near-immortal race which vow to watch the comings and goings of the universe, but Uatu could not resist interfering in the events of Earth. It turns out that Uatu had been manipulating the planet's atmosphere with the hope that doing so it could hide Earth from the Heralds of Galactus. The Heralds are scouts who find planets for Galactus to consume, and his most famous one is the Silver Surfer. The Surfer arrives but is knocked out by the Thing, only for Uatu to inform the Four that it is too late. Galactus has arrived. The comic ends with the mighty Galactus declaring <i>'My journey is ended! This planet shall sustain me until it has been drained of all elemental life! So Speaks Galactus!'</i>. Cliffhangers had long been used in comics, but such a cliffhanger left readers eager for more. Issue <i>#49 </i>sees the Fantastic Four try and fail to negotiate with Galactus, and then fight him, but they cannot fight a literal god. Meanwhile, friend of the Four Alicia Masters treats the defeated Surfer who begins to respect humanity. Although, there are some things he had to learn - such as why humans eat. Finally, in <i>#50</i>, the Human Torch is sent to Galactus's ship to steal a valuable weapon called the Ultimate Nullifier while the Surfer joins the Four in attacking Galactus. The Torch gives Mr Fantastic the Nullifier which actually frightens Galactus. The Nullifier is a weapon so powerful that it can wipe out galaxies, but the weapon itself can consume the user and become out of control. Eventually, Galactus concedes 'The prize is not worth the battle', and vows to leave Earth in return for the Nullifier. However, before he goes, in punishment for betraying him Galactus creates a force field which prevents the Silver Surfer from leaving the planet - it took until the 1980s for Surfer to be freed.</div>
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Galactus was Kirby's baby, and the Silver Surfer was Lee's, so it was Kirby who decided what to do with Galactus. While Lee regularly had Silver Surfer interact with other characters, Kirby really wanted Galactus to be a one-off. If he was going to appear, he wanted it to be a monumental moment which inspired awe. Galactus's next two appearances, in <i>Thor #134 </i>and <i>Daredevil ##37</i>, were two non-speaking cameos. However, fans wanted more of Galactus, so over the years he began appearing more and more until he became a mainstay of the Marvel Universe.</div>
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<b>Origins</b></div>
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Galactus's popularity meant that Kirby had to create an origin story for the 'Devourer of Worlds' in <i>Thor #169</i>. Galactus was once a regular humanoid called Galan from the planet Taa. The people of Taa had effectively created a paradise with no forms of inequality, disease, or trouble, but they were unable to fend off the end of their universe. As radiation started wiping out the last individuals on Taa, Galan proposed going on a last-ditch space mission to destroy the 'Cosmic Egg' which was emitting radiation. Everyone on board was killed, except for Galan. Instead, as one of the last living things in the universe, he was merged with the embodiment of his universe. Locked inside the Cosmic Egg they merged, and was reborn in a new universe which had just been created via a Big Bang. Over eons the new being slept as life evolved, and they were discovered by a Watcher called Ecce. Seeing the potential that the sleeping being had to destroy worlds Ecce went to destroy the slumbering giant, but was stopped by the other Watchers. They reminded Ecce of their purpose: to watch and not interfere. While the Watchers later realised that Galactus was a natural part of the universe, like a hurricane or volcanic eruption, Ecce still felt guilt over his inaction, for the billions killed by Galactus's hunger. Ecce woke the energy being, and using the newfound Cosmic Eternal, (the literal power of the universe itself), it constructed a suit to contain its immense energy, and went back to sleep. That is, until eons later when the Cosmic Egg was accidentally attacked in a war. A newly awakened and hungry Galactus wiped out a nearby fleet as easily as someone swats a fly, and fed on their homeworld of Archeopia. Using the energy of the Cosmic Eternal he created an immense ship named Taa II to inhabit as he swept through the cosmos.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Taa II</td></tr>
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There was some mortal still left within Galactus, but he also needed energy. The immense power of the Cosmic Egg needed an immense number of kilocalories to sustain itself. Not wanting to repeat the fate of Archeopia he consumed lifeless planets, only for them to not give him the sustenance which he needed. Using his cosmic powers he easily shut off that aspect of his mind. Eventually, Galactus arrived on the planet of Zenn-La, much like his own Taa, in <i>Silver Surfer #1</i>. A brilliant scientist called Norrin Radd pleaded with Galactus to spare Zenn-La arguing 'for even ants have a right to live'. Galactus, instead, gives us a good insight into the psychology of a force of nature. <i>'In order to live Galactus must have energy which only a healthy planet can provide. If some must fall, so that Galactus may endure... it is lamentable'</i>. Galactus does not consume out of malice or hatred. Instead he consumes because he has to. Radd managed, however, to strike a deal. In return for becoming his herald and scouting out planets, Galactus would spare Zenn-La. Galactus can do virtually anything - even resurrect the dead. With his power he turned Norrin Radd into a virtually mortal being known as the Silver Surfer. Norrin initially took Galactus to lifeless planets, however Galactus eradicated the Surfer's empathy so he would seek out planets with life.</div>
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<b>Other stories</b></div>
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Galactus's popularity has meant he has appeared in lots of stories, as is expected from a Lee-Kirby creation. It is interesting to see the evolution of the character over the years. Although Galactus has always been presented as being above concepts of good and evil, and still is seen as a villain, over the years comics have presented the World Devourer in different lights. In several <i>Fantastic Four </i>stories in the early-1980s we find out that Galactus does feel remorse over his consuming of worlds, he just cannot help himself. In the <i>Secret Wars </i>event of 1984 and 1985 Galactus played an important role. Another god-like being, (Marvel has a lot), called the Beyonder was intrigued by the concept of powered individuals, and wanted to see the ultimate battle between good and evil. Creating a planet known as 'Battleworld' he took heroes and villains to duke it out - whichever side won would get a wish. This story introduced many new concepts and characters: the villain Titania, the new Spider-Woman, Spider-Man's black suit (giving rise to Venom), and Magneto as a grey hero. Galactus was also brought in on the side of evil, but he declared himself neutral in the battle. The heroes had an issue, how could they defeat Galactus, who could anything, without the Ultimate Nullifier? Meanwhile, Dr Doom had a plan. While the other villains wanted to just fight the heroes, Doom wanted the power of the Beyonder. Why settle for a wish, when with the Beyonder's power you could get whatever you wished? To get the Beyonder's power, he needed that of Galactus, and that is easier said than done. Throughout <i>Secret Wars </i>Galactus literally wipes out Doom's plots with little effort, although the villain ended up obtaining the powers of Beyonder.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Galactus and Gah Lak Tus</td></tr>
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At the end of <i>Age of Ultron </i>(2013) a series of missions to change time in order to stop Ultron rising to power weakened the fabric of reality. This resulted in Galactus falling into the Ultimate Universe. In the early-2000s Marvel created the Ultimate line of comics which aimed to reboot the Marvel Universe without directly impacting the mainstream comics. The Ultimate version of Galactus was not a god-like being, but instead a hivemind of city-sized robots called Gah Lak Tus. Created by the ancient Kree to 'purify' the universe, i.e. kill their enemies, it became out of control having the aim to wipe out all life in the universe. Gah Lak Tus was fighting in the Chitauri-Kree War when Galactus fell into the Ultimate Universe. Unexpectedly, Gah Lak Tus merged with Galactus forming a greater, united being; some of the robots were even used as new heralds. When he attacked that universe's version of Earth he was trapped in an in-between dimension where no life exists called the Negative Zone. As expected in comics, Galactus wasn't left for too long to starve in the Negative Zone and was eventually returned to his original self. Recently, Galactus crashed on Asgard after seeing a vision that Thor would kill him - to avoid this he converted Thor into his herald, the Herald of Thunder...</div>
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Thank you for reading. For other blog updates please see our <a href="https://www.facebook.com/TwibyHistoryGeekStuff/">Facebook</a> or catch me on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/lewistwiby?lang=en">@LewisTwiby</a>.</div>
Lewis Twibyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03565517444017278980noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6707020941988899278.post-86301551639124679312020-04-12T06:40:00.000-07:002020-04-12T06:40:17.309-07:00Paleo Profiles: Pikaia<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSjWjvYZlnjdm3N8wE5_xgPt1F7HJHel7YPukaHSEBHilmMGDArNImMaDtqMREkE_WTTMVC9L5BtflMxO1LwABWxqa9Z_SJ8RDDHtp48DPbhZHOa6KIzJKmpomc7H_hp4PKeKJQGM-3H4c/s1600/Pikaia_Smithsonian.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="383" data-original-width="636" height="192" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSjWjvYZlnjdm3N8wE5_xgPt1F7HJHel7YPukaHSEBHilmMGDArNImMaDtqMREkE_WTTMVC9L5BtflMxO1LwABWxqa9Z_SJ8RDDHtp48DPbhZHOa6KIzJKmpomc7H_hp4PKeKJQGM-3H4c/s320/Pikaia_Smithsonian.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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When we think of important fossil discoveries we might think of Sue, the near-complete <i>Tyrannosaurus</i>, the <i>Archaeopteryx</i>, whose feathers provided a 'missing link' between dinosaurs and modern birds, or the <i>Tiktaalik</i>, which we looked at last time in <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2020/02/paleo-profiles-tiktaalik.html">Paleo Profiles</a>. However, there is another, and is so important that it might help shed light on the evolution of chordates, back-boned animals. This evolutionary question was the <i>Pikaia</i>. First appearing in the fossil record over 500 million years ago this tiny creature has become one of the most discussed and controversial fossils in the study of evolution.</div>
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<b>Discovery and Fossils</b></div>
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The first <i>Pikaia </i>fossil was found in Alberta, Canada by geographer and palaeontologist Charles Walcott. Alberta and British Columbia are well known in palaeontological circles for the abundance of fossils dating from the Cambrian period - the earliest part of the 'Phanerozoic Eon', a time lasting from over 500 million years ago to now where plant and animal life as abundant. Especially with the Burgess Shale in British Columbia, has allowed palaeontologists to understand the abundance and diversity of animal life which emerged millions of years ago. Finding the little fossil near the Pika Peak in Alberta, Walcott named the fossil <i>Pikaia </i>in honour of the mountain. However, due to the regularly segmented body of the animal, he classified it as a worm. This was not particularly an unusual find - Walcott himself would discover a vast array of worm species from Canada. Nearby Burgess Shale would allow palaeontologists to find a plethora of Cambrian fossils, including the <i>Pikaia</i>. Today, we have over 100 <i>Pikaia </i>fossils with most coming from the Burgess Shale. In 1979, Simon Conway Morris, who specialised in the Cambrian, went back and looked at the <i>Pikaia </i>fossils at hand. He did this again in 2012 as more <i>Pikaia </i>fossils were unearthed. Paleontologists often look back on discovered fossils to find things which might have been missed, or to relate them to new findings. Conway Morris found that <i>Pikaia</i> was not a worm, instead he argued it was a very primitive chordate. Quite possibly, <i>Pikaia </i>was a stem chordate - the ancestor to every back-boned animal to exist since then.</div>
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<b>Biology</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiZDjWErbQr4mhXTSmPbPEKAmU03kD6y7Xmy1n4amx3daAZsI4nhlxWDkCiYUNhQNVWxCqhg8xj5kyDmH1EWaFBkcZaKsYqLiUSqj1-WxnvfwyqjhpwPiSEtbrmM44hgWCNUKyshj_XnqI-/s1600/13227_2012_Article_48_Fig1_HTML.webp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="469" data-original-width="685" height="219" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiZDjWErbQr4mhXTSmPbPEKAmU03kD6y7Xmy1n4amx3daAZsI4nhlxWDkCiYUNhQNVWxCqhg8xj5kyDmH1EWaFBkcZaKsYqLiUSqj1-WxnvfwyqjhpwPiSEtbrmM44hgWCNUKyshj_XnqI-/s320/13227_2012_Article_48_Fig1_HTML.webp" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Conway Morris's and Caron's reconstruction</td></tr>
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Compared to later vertebrates, the <i>Pikaia </i>was a very simple chordate. With segmented bodies and two tentacles on the head it strongly resembled a worm. It was also very small at just 38 millimetres in length, it could easily fit on your fingernail. Within this tiny body there was a relatively complex system for respiration and digestion, so much so, it could potentially question when diversity of life exploded. Traditionally, the Middle Cambrian has been described as the 'Cambrian Explosion' for the diversity of life which emerged, so the complexity of <i>Pikaia </i>at such a period could indicate that this occurred even earlier. Palaeontologists have compared the <i>Pikaia </i>to an animal still in existence today - the lancelets (shown below).</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDmrRBZZqWDubbgvYJy_mKNVtFaWkyTBpGIdxaqkpLvfwvi98t_7VxQ2QshcRYBRMphraaoShcx8GcM9JCBDTVTstgvdFAMNIp_XBIcT24ru2rJEr8URBWVpmEVMXGchTy5M_UzETutYVz/s1600/Branchiostoma_lanceolatum.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="811" data-original-width="1024" height="253" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDmrRBZZqWDubbgvYJy_mKNVtFaWkyTBpGIdxaqkpLvfwvi98t_7VxQ2QshcRYBRMphraaoShcx8GcM9JCBDTVTstgvdFAMNIp_XBIcT24ru2rJEr8URBWVpmEVMXGchTy5M_UzETutYVz/s320/Branchiostoma_lanceolatum.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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Lancelets, like <i>Branchiostoma</i> above, bear a striking resemblance to <i>Pikaia</i> - a streamlined respiratory system and filter-feeding on plankton and zooplankton. Quite possibly it may have been somewhat see-through just like the lancelet. During the Middle Cambrian the earliest fish, or what would evolve to become the earliest fish, have been preserved so palaeontologists could see their organs - <i>Haikouichthys </i>from China is a good example of this. Thurston Lacalli has further analysed the segments of the <i>Pikaia's </i>body and found that they would likely have been a fairly slow swimmer, a bit like a hagfish. There are still controversies around where <i>Pikaia </i>fit into the evolution of chordates. Simon Conway Morris has argued that it was a stem chordate, so <i>Pikaia </i>could have been one of several species which served as the ancestor to the chordates. However, it is not certain as <i>Pikaia </i>could instead be a close relative of the stem chordates.</div>
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<b>When and Where</b></div>
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<i>Pikaia </i>has only been discovered in Canada, with most of them being discovered in the Burgess Shale in British Columbia. The Burgess Shale has allowed palaeontologists to uncover a wide range of plant and animal life from the Cambrian period - roughly 514 million years ago. The world of the Cambrian was incredibly different from the world of today. There was one continent, clustered around the southern hemisphere, which made the planet's climate much colder; the Earth was further recovering from the 'Snowball Earth'. As a result, the Cambrian was cold. Oxygen content was two-thirds the level than it is today, and the levels of carbon dioxide was seven times the level than it was before the Industrial Revolution. The ozone layer is believed to have only came into existence around 600 million years ago, so by the Middle Cambrian it had started shielding the planet's surface from the sun's radiation. This meant that the surface was dangerous for life, but it was safer in the seas, (which covered most of the planet). The Cambrian, as mentioned earlier, saw the 'Cambrian Explosion' where the diversity of life exploded.</div>
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<b><i>Pikaia's </i>Habitat</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGrKonrArMBMt2ysnlFmgBrrHHcLd1m8r8e9QG0x1RDRUIIp9fAb2xZtd03yG-zYmnDxnb97a0FqQ9S81JH5ppE0Nd_TtfOsJGvCfG4cROwRljuNBgjc8E6pDskFIPbWAKaWzDNJMzN_qL/s1600/Burgess500WEB.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="363" data-original-width="500" height="232" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGrKonrArMBMt2ysnlFmgBrrHHcLd1m8r8e9QG0x1RDRUIIp9fAb2xZtd03yG-zYmnDxnb97a0FqQ9S81JH5ppE0Nd_TtfOsJGvCfG4cROwRljuNBgjc8E6pDskFIPbWAKaWzDNJMzN_qL/s320/Burgess500WEB.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A Burgess Shale reconstruction by Carel Brest van Kempen</td></tr>
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The Burgess Shale of the Middle Cambrian resembled that of a modern coral reef. The large amount of soft-bodied animals and plants to be fossilised at the Burgess Shale indicates that it had muddy grounds. Quite possibly, a big reason why the animals and plants died at Burgess Shale was because of mud slides which buried the life underneath. Due to this, palaeontologists have managed to unearth such a wide range of life, and find well-preserved fossils, such as the <i>Pikaia </i>fossils. The Cambrian was home to a very bizarre group of animal life. Periodically through the planet's history there are explosions of diverse life adapted to very specific ecological niches, however, extinction events often wipe out the variety of life so the truly unique species vanish without descendants. In Burgess Shale we see the first jellyfish, hard-bodied arthropods, worms, trilobites, and sponges. However, alongside <i>Pikaia </i>were truly weird animals. Among them included <i>Hallucigenia</i>, a tentacled worm with spikes, <i>Wiwaxia</i>, a soft-bodied mollusc with spikes, and <i>Anomalocaris</i>, a prawn-like predator designated the world's first 'superpredator'. One, <i>Opabinia</i>, caused laughter when it was first revealed for its jaws on the end of tentacles and five eyes. Quite possibly, <i>Pikaia </i>could have been preyed upon by <i>Opabinia </i>and <i>Anomalocaris</i>.</div>
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The sources I have used are as follows:</div>
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-'Pikaia', <a href="http://www.prehistoric-wildlife.com/species/p/pikaia.html" style="font-style: italic;">Prehistoric-Wildlife.com</a>, [Accessed 09/04/2020]</div>
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-Simon Conway Morris and Jean-Bernard Caron, '<i>Pikaia gracilens</i> Walcott, a stem-group chordate from the Middle Cambrian of British Columbia', <i>Biological Reviews</i>, 87, (2012), 480-512</div>
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-Jon Mallat and Nicholas Holland, '<i>Pikaia gracilens</i> Walcott: Stem Chordate, or Already Specialized in the Cambrian?', <i>Journal of Experimental Zoology</i>, 320:4, (2013), 247-271</div>
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-Thurston Lacalli, 'The Middle Cambrian fossil <i>Pikaia</i> and the evolution of chordate swimming', <i>EvoDevo</i>, 3:12, (2012)</div>
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Thank you for reading. For other Paleo Profiles we have a list <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/p/paleo-profiles.html">here</a>. For future blog updates please see our <a href="https://en-gb.facebook.com/TwibyHistoryGeekStuff/">Facebook</a> or catch me on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/lewistwiby?lang=en">@LewisTwiby</a>.</div>
Lewis Twibyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03565517444017278980noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6707020941988899278.post-60546156998311517012020-04-05T05:48:00.001-07:002020-04-05T05:48:13.587-07:00Comics Explained: Stargirl and S.T.R.I.P.E<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiIWeasd0xSuQWsEIe0UNGNDeLi82nE5IsYLsU2W_JxECpZ8GR5gdylnThpStqDt5r4wNN9FLnZ0qj88XtUu8vSGJKR-jhJuaYQshm7kNu7WT95ko2Q7N4znVsXMXNhAnhghiPK78BGiDSt/s1600/JSA_81.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="351" data-original-width="284" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiIWeasd0xSuQWsEIe0UNGNDeLi82nE5IsYLsU2W_JxECpZ8GR5gdylnThpStqDt5r4wNN9FLnZ0qj88XtUu8vSGJKR-jhJuaYQshm7kNu7WT95ko2Q7N4znVsXMXNhAnhghiPK78BGiDSt/s320/JSA_81.jpg" width="258" /></a></div>
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CW is soon to release their new TV series <i>Stargirl</i>, so it is quite fitting that we look at her today. Stargirl has been consistently one of DC's second tier characters meaning that she has had a regular background role in the comics, or membership in superhero teams, but has not been seen as one of the main heroes. Similarly, we cannot discuss Stargirl without her partner S.T.R.I.P.E who was introduced all the way back in 1941 under the name Stripesy. Today we'll look at both characters and their history in the DC Universe.</div>
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<b>The Star-Spangled Kid and Stripesy</b></div>
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Even before the United States entered the Second World War, there was a feeling that they would soon enter and feared espionage from the Axis powers. In 1941, before the bombing of Pearl Harbor which brought the US into the war, a wave of US-themed, nationalistic heroes came into being. The most famous would, of course, be Captain America, published by Marvel's forerunner Timely. All the comic book publishers had some form of nationalistic character to whip up patriotism: the Fighting Yank from Nedor Comics, Yank and Doodle from Prize Publications, and Miss Victory from Helnit Comics being some notable examples. DC had a plethora of patriotic heroes with names such as Uncle Sam, Liberty Belle, and Miss America. Debuting in <i>Star Spangled Comics #1 </i>in October 1941, (although one had been introduced in the earlier <i>Action Comics #40</i>), was a new patriotic duo fighting Nazi agents: the Star-Spangled Kid and Stripesy. Sylvester Pemberton was a spoiled rich kid and Pat Dugan was his bumbling chauffeur. However, they were secretly honed acrobats and athletes, and donned costumes forming the duo Star-Spangled Kid and Stripesy. In a story created by Superman co-creator Jerry Siegel and artist Hal Sherman this duo of non-superpowered heroes fought against Nazi spies wanting to take down America. The two were noted for flipping the superhero genre. Normally, the younger character was the sidekick, but it was the older Stripesy who was the sidekick. That is the only thing innovative about the duo. Publishers wanted to make sales on the popular 'patriotic hero' genre, and it was certainly quantity over quality. Stripesy's appearance is literally a well-built man in a red-and-white striped shirt, and his abilities were acrobatics and being a good engineer. Unsurprisingly, it did not take long for the duo to be relegated to a team of B-tier heroes.</div>
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By the end of 1941 writer Mort Weisinger was tasked in creating a new superhero team, due to to massive popularity of the Justice Society. <i>Leading Comics #1 </i>introduced a new team: the Seven Soldiers of Victory. Comprised of largely newly created characters the Seven Soldiers were: the Star-Spangled Kid and Stripesy; Green Arrow and his sidekick Speedy; the cowboy-themed hero Vigilante; Shining Knight, a member of the Knights of the Round Table frozen in time; and the Crimson Avenger, DC's answer to the Green Hornet. What was interesting about this time, in contrast to the Justice Society, was that each member did not have superpowers - instead they relied on their own physical skills, abilities, and gadgets to fight crime and spies. Throughout the war they remained popular, but the end of the war came with the end of their popularity. Western, romance, and animal stories started replacing superheroes in popularity, and wartime heroes suffered as a result. By the mid-1940s the Star-Spangled Kid and Stripesy had stopped their appearances.</div>
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<b>Return</b></div>
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In the 1970s, nostalgia for the 'Golden Age of Comics' of the 1940s, and searching for new and interesting stories, DC decided to bring back the Seven Soldiers of Victory. How could they though? The Seven Soldiers had not been published since 1945! The writers of <i>Justice League of America </i>had the answer. From issues <i>#100-102 </i>in 1972 we found out why the Seven Soldiers vanished, (other than the publisher's desire to jump on new trends), and how they were brought back. On a mission in 1950 a problem in time scattered the team throughout history, so the Justice Society and Justice League teamed up to rescue them. Stripesy was rescued from ancient Egypt by Batman, Hourman, and Starman, and the Star-Spangled Kid was rescued from a cave 50,000 years ago by Aquaman, Wildcat, and Green Lantern. Brought back to the 1970s, and not 1950, the rescued Seven Soldiers made a new life. Stripesy gets married to someone called Maggie, but she eventually left him taking their son with her. The Star-Spangled Kid continued with heroics helping Dugan regain his lost patents, and fighting his nephew who had used the family estate to fund supervillains. In a revived <i>All-Star Comics </i>he grew close to Starman - a scientist who constructed a powerful rod which could manipulate energy. When Starman was injured, he gave Pemberton his rod which the young hero used to create a streamlined version of the rod in the form of a belt. With this he adopted the moniker Skyman. However, it would end in tragedy. While fighting alongside a new team called Infinity Inc. he was killed by the hulking zombie Solomon Grundy. </div>
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<b><i>Stars and S.T.R.I.P.E</i></b></div>
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Finally, we've arrived at when Stargirl arrives on the scene in the comic series <i>Stars and S.T.R.I.P.E</i>. Debuting in <i>Stars and S.T.R.I.P.E #1 </i>in 1999 we see the origins of a new pairing. A retired Pat Dugan remarried and moved to Nebraska, with the new life and marriage came a stepdaughter - Courtney Whitmore. Courtney was resentful of Pat coming into her life, and moving the family to Nebraska, so was not the biggest fan of her new stepdad. That is, until she came across his old keepsakes. There she found out that her stepfather Pat was actually the former hero Stripesy, so she decided to pull a prank on him. Going to a fancy-dress party she donned a costume similar to that of Stripesy's old partner, and included his old belt. However, during the party an old enemy of the Seven Soldiers, who survived the war until now, called the Dragon King attacked leading to Courtney using the cosmic belt of the old Star-Spangled Kid to defend herself. At the same time, Pat knew that one day he might have to return as a superhero, so he put his engineering skills to the test. Creating a suit, resembling a mix between the Iron Giant and Iron Man, he adopted the new moniker S.T.R.I.P.E - Special Tactics Robotic Integrated Power Enhancer. He joined Courtney and together the beat the minions of the Dragon King; seeing how well the formerly feuding pair worked together they decided to make it a permanent pairing. Courtney became the new Star-Spangled Kid, and together they formed Stars and Stripes. Courtney, in particular, proved to be popular with fans thanks to her charm and bubbly personality. A big reason behind this was that writer Geoff Johns based her off of his sister who had tragically died in a plane crash, so Courtney became a tribute to her. The quaint pairing and stories made <i>Stars and S.T.R.I.P.E </i>a welcome part of the DC Universe - even if they never became as popular as other characters.</div>
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<b>Becoming Stargirl</b></div>
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The popularity of the duo meant that they soon appeared in wider comics, namely the Justice Society. Courtney and Pat added a familial aspect to the Justice Society which extended to the rest of the team. It was through this that the duo became a mainstay of the DC Universe, even if it was a minor one. In <i>Starman Vol. 2 #80 </i>Starman had been impressed by Courtney's dealing of the dark magic using Klarion, and decided that she was the best person to inherit his Cosmic Staff. Accepting it, and to honour the older hero, she adopted the moniker Stargirl. Armed with both Skyman's belt and Starman's staff this gave Courtney enhanced strength, durability, speed, and agility, as well as energy projection and flight. During her time with the Justice Society she became close friends with Power Girl, and even started dating Captain Marvel, (Shazam). The team had such a close bond that, in full costume, the entire Justice Society came to her house for a surprise party after she got back from the dentist. Meanwhile, S.T.R.I.P.E remained a loyal member of the team helping build equipment and supporting Stargirl. In <i>JSA #81 </i>Courtney found out that her absent biological father had died, which sent her world into crisis. While wanting to hate him for abandoning both herself and her mother, she couldn't find the hatred. Instead, she chose to find love, and realise that she always had a father - Pat. From there, they grew closer as a father and daughter superhero duo. Following the reboot of the DC Universe in <i>The New 52 </i>the duo shifted to the Justice League as the Justice Society was written out of the timeline, but then <i>Doomsday Clock </i>changed things. In <i>Doomsday Clock</i> we found out that Dr Manhattan from <i>Watchmen </i>had been manipulating the DC timeline, which cause the JSA to be written out of existence. However, at the event's end when he returned things to 'normal', the duo were part of the Justice Society.</div>
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Thank you for reading. For other blog updates please see our <a href="https://d.facebook.com/TwibyHistoryGeekStuff/?__tn__=C-R">Facebook</a> or catch me on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/lewistwiby?lang=en">@LewisTwiby</a>.</div>
Lewis Twibyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03565517444017278980noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6707020941988899278.post-24495022827666340242020-03-29T07:24:00.003-07:002020-03-29T07:24:40.826-07:00Comics Explained: The Batman Who Laughs<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidJvUs0ERXDfLHoBq5mFP9fPYQyUnmFaTgpsDtlh-HaEVxwgoYhzviz8f8-niEFeM1B6B-JEnxG56wnDtsLl6YdkNW0G0uMl08kxv5F_tRM97-aLIcw30lJn2rY8U33a_o3buLu164ahtz/s1600/DC%2527s_Year_of_the_Villain_Special_Vol_1_1_Textless_Batman_Who_Laughs_Variant.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1054" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidJvUs0ERXDfLHoBq5mFP9fPYQyUnmFaTgpsDtlh-HaEVxwgoYhzviz8f8-niEFeM1B6B-JEnxG56wnDtsLl6YdkNW0G0uMl08kxv5F_tRM97-aLIcw30lJn2rY8U33a_o3buLu164ahtz/s320/DC%2527s_Year_of_the_Villain_Special_Vol_1_1_Textless_Batman_Who_Laughs_Variant.jpg" width="210" /></a></div>
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Despite only debuting in 2017 the Batman Who Laughs has made a big impact on DC comics. A mixture of his design, the premise behind him, and his significant presence in the <i>Dark Knights: Metal </i>storyline has made him a quickly popular character. Despite his recent appearance, he has already made a cameo in other media being an alternate skin for a character in <i>Mortal Kombat 11</i>. Created by Scott Snyder and Greg Capullo for their new <i>Dark Knights: Metal </i>story, where they wanted to create Batman's worst nightmare, and Scott hoped that he would be popular enough to remain a constant in the DC Universe. At the moment, his desire has come true. Before we discuss the Batman Who Laughs we have to first set out how this character came to be.</div>
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<b>The Dark Multiverse</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2mic4nxAhFzXBowBNsKPnhC8tc5jnyYp1JbUcNUxFLU6QeCp_3e8-r02xe9amJ6rgAORchFJtLx39SEH5bEI4kJu6VmSj0hZzTvH9MVDEgj0g8XTaictUNkujqLKwUvqCNaoh7EoHzCmv/s1600/Dark_Nights_Metal_Vol_1_3_Textless.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="450" data-original-width="360" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2mic4nxAhFzXBowBNsKPnhC8tc5jnyYp1JbUcNUxFLU6QeCp_3e8-r02xe9amJ6rgAORchFJtLx39SEH5bEI4kJu6VmSj0hZzTvH9MVDEgj0g8XTaictUNkujqLKwUvqCNaoh7EoHzCmv/s320/Dark_Nights_Metal_Vol_1_3_Textless.jpg" width="256" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Barbatos</td></tr>
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Many comic books have the idea of the Multiverse - including <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2018/04/comics-explained-dc-multiverse.html">DC</a>. Prior to the <i>Flashpoint </i>event, when the Multiverse was in existence, there was feasibly an infinite number of realities were an infinite number of variations of characters can exist. After the <i>Flashpoint </i>event the Multiverse was reduced to just 52 realities - among them a world where all crime is gone and the children of heroes live a reality TV show like life, a civil war among superhumans from <i>Injustice</i>, and even a universe where all the characters are anthropomorphic animals. Scott Snyder for <i>Dark Knights: Metal </i>created the Dark Multiverse. Over the course of the event more information was revealed about the Dark Multiverse. The Batman Who Laughs summed it up quite well:</div>
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<i>Stop me if you've heard this one... worlds will live, worlds will die... but imagine if your every fear, each bad decision, gave birth to a malformed world of nightmare. A world that shouldn't exist. And desperate as it fights to survive in the light of the true multiverse far above... these worlds are doomed to rot apart, and die, because they are wrong at their core. Welcome to the Dark Multiverse. Home to stories that should never be... It's all one big cosmic joke, except no one on this side is laughing. ...well, almost no one...</i></blockquote>
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As you can tell, the Dark Multiverse was a version of the Multiverse where nightmares and bad decisions lead to the creation of universes who were unstable in their structure. In the past, a being named the World Forger was tasked with having these unstable realities destroyed, and the energy from these destroyed worlds to be used to create new realities. The World Forger used the 'Great Dragon' Barbatos to destroy these worlds, but Barbatos later betrayed the World Forger and destroyed it. Barbatos allowed these universes to germinate with the intention of using them to invade and destroy the Multiverse. When the main reality Batman got transported through time by Darkseid during the <i>Final Crisis </i>event this brought him to the attention of Barbatos, who recognised the similarity between itself and Batman. Barbatos would use Batman to open the gateway between the Dark Multiverse and Multiverse, which is where the Batman Who Laughs comes in.</div>
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<b>Origins</b></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Joker Robins</td></tr>
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<span style="text-align: justify;">Although the Batman Who Laughs was introduced thanks to the </span><i style="text-align: justify;">Dark Knights: Metal </i><span style="text-align: justify;">event, it was actually in </span><i style="text-align: justify;">The Batman Who Laughs #1 </i><span style="text-align: justify;">which explored his origin. In Earth -22, Bruce Wayne and the DC Universe matched the mainstream reality except with one difference - it was based on Batman's fear of becoming like the Joker. In Earth -22 the Joker found out Batman's secret identity, and decided to perform the ultimate attack on Batman as a finale, due to the chemicals which turned him into the Joker now killing him. First wiping out all of Batman's villains, and killing Commissioner Gordon via an acid trap in his notebook, planned to merge the fates of himself and Bruce Wayne. He killed the parents of a few children in front of them, and then introduced them to his Joker Venom - copying the origin of Batman and the origin of Joker. To make his plan complete he had Batman witness the children's turn into 'Joker Robins'. A broken Batman broke free and choked the Joker to death, but the clown had a secret weapon - when he died his concoction would be released infecting whoever killed him. </span><div style="text-align: justify;">
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Killing the Bat Family</td></tr>
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A few days later members of the Bat Family were training with robots programmed by Batman, but they were fighting surprisingly harder this day. When they confronted Batman about this, he revealed that he had been infected by the Joker's toxins, and was slowly becoming the Joker. While Nightwing assumes that the robots were set to harder difficulties so they could beat Batman when the time came; it turned out that the turn had already came. With the robots failing to kill the Bat Family, a now changed Bruce Wayne proceeded to shoot Nightwing, Batgirl, Red Robin, and Red Hood. Turning his son, the current Robin Damien Wayne, into another Joker Robin he soon wiped out the Justice League. Confirming his descent into the Batman Who Laughs, he used a type of kryptonite on Superman and Superboy causing them to kill Lois Lane before dying themselves. Laughing, he drew a smiley face on a window of the Justice League Watchtower in the blood of his former friends. Using the weaponry of the Justice League he soon proceeded to destroy life on the planet, and this is what made Barbatos to approach him to become his right-hand. Barbatos tasked the Batman Who Laughs to recruit the 'Dark Knights' - a collection of the most twisted versions of Batman who take over the Multiverse. </div>
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<b>Dark Knights: Metal</b></div>
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The Batman Who Laughs's major appearance was during the <i>Dark Knights: Metal </i>event, but I don't want to give away too many spoilers for the comic. As it was recently published it is still available in stores, and it's a good story, so I would recommend reading it yourself. Instead, I'll just quickly go over some notable events which the Batman Who Laughs oversaw. Naturally, being the right-hand of Barbatos, he lead the initial attack on the Multiverse, arriving in the main reality and setting the Joker Robins on the Court of Owls. The Court of Owls is a sinister group, and it is difficult to quickly summarise them, but for the purpose of <i>Dark Knights: Metal</i>, they worship Barbatos and worked to use Batman to bring them into the Multiverse. Now, with their purpose fulfilled, the Batman Who Laughs had them killed, and then sent the Dark Knights to attack the home cities of the Justice League. To secure his base in Gotham, he handed out cards which could alter reality to the Riddler, Poison Ivy, Firefly, Mad Hatter, Bane, and Mister Freeze - if someone wished to take down his base, they would have to fight through the warped version of Gotham created by the villains. Through the rest of the story, the Batman Who Laughs tries to wipe out reality and his enemies, but was challenged by a team of alternate reality Batmen led by the main Batman. However, what took the Batman Who Laughs was that the Joker helped in the fight. The Joker simply explained, the Batman Who Laughs still had the planning of Batman so they had to do something which Batman would never expect: fighting alongside the Joker.</div>
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<b>After the Dark Knights</b></div>
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The Batman Who Laughs managed to survive the defeat of Barbatos, and was later found to be under the custody of Lex Luthor. The other members of the Legion of Doom, especially the Joker, were uncomfortable having the Batman Who Laughs at their base, and he himself goaded Luthor about knowing the secrets of the Multiverse. It turned out that the Batman could escape whenever he wanted; he was biding his time to see how events were going on the outside. Later, in exchange for information, Luthor released him. He then began his new goal: taking down Batman. To achieve his goal he recruited another Batman from the Dark Multiverse - the Grim Knight. A mixture of Batman and the Punisher, this version of Batman killed Joe Chill, who murdered Batman's parents, when he dropped his gun. This put him on a course to becoming a murderous Batman who turned Gotham into a police state. The Joker, meanwhile, realised that his Batman didn't have the same disregard for human life as the Batman Who Laughs and Grim Knight, so he infected Batman with a diluted version of the Joker Venom. He would become another Batman Who Laughs, but with more control. In the end, a confrontation in the Wayne graveyard main reality Batman defeated the Batman Who Laughs, and Alfred gave him a serum stopping him from becoming a new Batman Who Laughs. Despite his incarceration in the Hall of Justice, he began his new plot to tear apart the Justice League and this reality: infect Superman with the Joker Venom. He came close using an infected Shazam and Blue Beetle to get Superman in position, and he would have succeeded if not for Supergirl grabbing a batarang designed to affect Kryptonians before it could hit him. </div>
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Thank you for reading. For other blog updates please see our <a href="https://www.facebook.com/TwibyHistoryGeekStuff/">Facebook</a> or catch me on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/lewistwiby?lang=en">@LewisTwiby</a>.</div>
Lewis Twibyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03565517444017278980noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6707020941988899278.post-76464142295988321272020-03-22T12:00:00.001-07:002020-03-22T12:00:13.711-07:00World History: The First World War<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgKas53-VDRYX4DUFSgFMNdsDV8MUyViIkjGrZoRdcPcDajfW1ItUqzDTOe20STEM10IslmEpZmDSuvEeUkCbGyNNJsLLYAFZ4YOTR9L1zndGxwZvdvvsB-DEFJx0K0QWiqnoBZiOdLuiGM/s1600/GettyImages-80457874-1-05304e3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="413" data-original-width="620" height="213" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgKas53-VDRYX4DUFSgFMNdsDV8MUyViIkjGrZoRdcPcDajfW1ItUqzDTOe20STEM10IslmEpZmDSuvEeUkCbGyNNJsLLYAFZ4YOTR9L1zndGxwZvdvvsB-DEFJx0K0QWiqnoBZiOdLuiGM/s320/GettyImages-80457874-1-05304e3.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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The First World War, the Great War, has earned itself as one of the darkest parts of modern history. It is estimated that 40 million people were killed by the First World War, both military and civilian, through a mixture of conflict, genocide, disease, and starvation. The First World War was not the first global war, nor was it the first total war, but it was the conflict which shaped how we view both global and total wars. This war broke the old world, and set the stage for a new one - however bleak. As the First World War has been so thoroughly discussed we cannot cover everything, and bear in mind what we will discuss today is more of an overview. The origins of the war are so hotly debated that the books written about it available in the University of Edinburgh's library cover at least three shelves. Also, as I am not a military historian, we will not focus as much on the battles and fighting, although we will discuss them regardless.</div>
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<b>Origins</b></div>
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As already mentioned, the origins of the war has been hotly debated, and these debates range from who 'started' it, and are the long or short term factors more important in the outbreak. James Joll, for example, holds that more short term factors were more important, whereas Christopher Clark holds that the long term factors were more important. Regardless, we have to discuss both. Following the defeat of France by the Prussians in 1871 it left France isolated diplomatically, so they made an alliance with another diplomatically isolated state - the Russian Empire. This would begin the treaty system where European states made alliances with the intention of these alliances deterring war. By 1900 two alliance blocks had formed: the Entente, (consisting of France, Russia, and Britain), and the Central Powers, (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy). Other alliances meant that when war broke out more states became involved. Britain's treaty with Japan and vow to protect Belgium, as well as Germany building ties with the Ottoman Empire, were just some examples. The rise of nationalism was spelling disaster for the multi-ethnic Austro-Hungarian Empire, something especially troubling with its neighbour Serbia adopting Pan-Slavic ideas, supported by Russia who saw itself as 'the defender of the Slavic peoples'. This was exacerbated by two events: in 1903 a coup in Serbia brought to power a more expansionist government, and in 1908 Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia enraging nationalists. The crumbling Ottoman Empire led to two wars in the Balkans, the first in 1912-3 to kick the Ottomans out of the Balkans and the second in 1913 to reduce the size of Bulgaria. The Balkans were a powder keg, but it was not the only powder keg in Europe. Since coming to the throne in 1888 German emperor Wilhelm II wanted to put Germany on equal footing with the British and French Empires. Not only did Germany challenge France's claim to Morocco so Germany could get 'a place in the sun' there was also a rapid increase in naval power. Overseen by Alfred von Tirpiz Germany's navy greatly expanded influencing Britain to expand its navy in an arms race. Although ended by Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg in 1911, the arms race was decided in 1906 when the British launched <i>HMS Dreadnought</i> giving them the technological advantage.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiX4RZJXNNq1P3NhKWQd1K_idppVRtClMWY6dgldQywEOnofpIjYloKJ-2MXzwcMy79kR13g1n1IMym5M4wNQkQNOFQeSIhGrR79HpTaZbyg53iII6FYYTP6N9YXo120u97EoBpydZ7zr2F/s1600/Francis-Ferdinand-Sophie-Austria-carriage-Sarajevo-assassination-June-28-1914.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="960" data-original-width="1600" height="192" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiX4RZJXNNq1P3NhKWQd1K_idppVRtClMWY6dgldQywEOnofpIjYloKJ-2MXzwcMy79kR13g1n1IMym5M4wNQkQNOFQeSIhGrR79HpTaZbyg53iII6FYYTP6N9YXo120u97EoBpydZ7zr2F/s320/Francis-Ferdinand-Sophie-Austria-carriage-Sarajevo-assassination-June-28-1914.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Franz Ferdinand and Sophie</td></tr>
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These long term factors then fed into one event, which Christopher Clark compared to 9/11 in its importance. On 28 June 1914, while visiting Bosnia's capital of Sarajevo, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne Franz Ferdinand, and his pregnant wife, Sophie, was assassinated by Gavrilo Princip, a pan-Serbian nationalist part of the group Mlada Bosna. The assassination not only sparked anti-Serbian riots in Sarajevo, but also what is now known as the July Crisis. The July Crisis was the event which allowed war to break out, but it was all behind the scenes. This was such the case that Austria's main paper ran a headline about the growing conflict in Ireland the day before war broke out! Although Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph was glad that his more progressive nephew would now not inherit the throne, he could not stand that Serbian nationalists, likely supported by the Serbian government, had struck at Austria. At the start of July Wilhelm threw his support behind Austria stating that they would back whatever Austria did in the now infamous 'blank check', and Chief of General Staff Moltker wrote that <i>'Austria must beat the Serbs'</i>. Meanwhile, states began mobilising their armies and navies as diplomats went to work. On July 23 Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia - accept all ten points or war will be declared. Serbia accepted all but one, that Austro-Hungarians would lead the investigation into the assassination, and even then it was very last minute. You can see on the ultimatum prime minister Nikola Pasic had ticked each demand, but hastily crossed out the investigation demand. Even Wilhelm conceded that Serbia's response <i>'eliminates any reason for war'</i>. Regardless, July 28 Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia starting a domino effect as European states became involved - by August 6 Britain (and the Empire), Russia, France, Serbia, Germany, and Austria-Hungary were at war. As British foreign secretary, Edward Grey, said <i>'The lamps are going out all over Europe. We shall not see them lit again in our lifetime'</i>.</div>
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<b>The War Begins</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgtB1TZ1s0CamOzKghNZ_MkRwj8OhfR7fU_vuWtX8eaEAh_FPpJGayvLDS1iJ9YQPLWFWbB4s5y3pKpQxjaZBe0ucbC_VyKmkL7nEperCfZ_mikqO46Caj5fo1gf1LlXMYs3mLZoMIrMoiL/s1600/men-line-up-to-enlist-in-the-army-at-the-start-of-ww1-london-1914-color-added-2016-david-lee-guss.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="520" data-original-width="600" height="277" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgtB1TZ1s0CamOzKghNZ_MkRwj8OhfR7fU_vuWtX8eaEAh_FPpJGayvLDS1iJ9YQPLWFWbB4s5y3pKpQxjaZBe0ucbC_VyKmkL7nEperCfZ_mikqO46Caj5fo1gf1LlXMYs3mLZoMIrMoiL/s320/men-line-up-to-enlist-in-the-army-at-the-start-of-ww1-london-1914-color-added-2016-david-lee-guss.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">An army recruitment line in London, 1914</td></tr>
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Fighting began quickly and, contrary to accusations that it was a European war until American entry, it was immediately global. British and German troops clashed first, not in Europe, but in Africa when the British and French invaded Togo and Kamerun on August 6. Japan allied with the Entente and began invading German territories in China and the Pacific, and New Zealand occupied what would become the Solomon Islands. German and British ships further fought one another off the coast of the Falkland Islands early in the war. Germany intended to use the Schlieffen Plan, first created in 1907, to solve the issue of fighting a war on two fronts; it was a bad plan, but it was their only usable plan. The Schlieffen Plan involved invading France through the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Belgium to bypass French defenses; quickly knock out France by taking Paris before they could mobilise their forces and colonial strength; and then turn their attention to Russia, hopefully being pinned down by Austria in the meantime. Despite streamlining the plan by leaving the Netherlands neutral the plan failed. For one, Austria invaded Serbia leaving the Eastern front unguarded, and Germany was hoping that Britain would not want to defend Belgian neutrality, but they did. France and Russia further mobilised faster than expected, and British expeditionary forces managed to land in France by early-August. In what would come to characterise warfare in this period, the fronts soon became bogged down in trench warfare. However, France and Britain quickly hoped to strangle the economies of Austria and Germany, and successfully blockaded them with their navies. Frightening the powers was Ottoman entry on the side of the Central Powers - distrustful of Britain and France's exploitation of the <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2020/01/world-history-middle-east-and.html">empire</a>, allying with their enemy Russia, and overtures from Wilhelm meant they sided with the Central Powers.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">German troops on the way to Belgium</td></tr>
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Although there was some resistance to the war, populations were positive towards it being swept along in nationalism and jingoism. Of course, there were splits in society. The Second International saw a split between the Marxists and democratic socialists over support for the war - while members of the German Social Democratic Party voted in favour of war credits, others in the party, like Karl Liebknecht, opposed this and were imprisoned. Generally, the mood was in favour of the war. Many suffragette movements dropped their militancy in favour of supporting the war effort - several in the Women's Social and Political Union advocated giving white feathers to men who weren't fighting in order to shame them into enlisting. Most states did not have to bring about conscription for several years due to the initial wave of support for the war - in British popular memory boys under the age of sixteen were told to have a walk around the street and come back older. Even minorities were willing to enlist, seeing that engagement in the war would prove their worthiness of rights. A 500-strong Maori Contingent, the Te Hokowhitu A Tu, originally tried to join, but were initially rebuked as <i>'the Maoris should not take part in the wars of the White Race against a White Race'</i>. They were eventually shipped out to Europe in February 1915. The general consensus was that the war 'would be over by Christmas', largely as people looked to European wars over the last century which were short, such as the Franco-Prussian War and the Crimean War. As stated by Eric Hobsbawm, the American Civil War should have been the war which showed the face of modern warfare.</div>
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<b>WW1 and Warfare</b></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Entente troops at Gallipoli</td></tr>
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The First World War can be seen as the first 'modern' war, and the last war of, what Hobsbawm describes as, the 'Long Nineteenth Century'. Although the often used phrase, 'lions led by lambs', to describe the leaders and soldiers is simplistic, and quite ahistorical, there is some truth to it. It took too long in many fronts of the war for tacticians to adapt to new warfare. New developments in the form of barbed wire and machine guns meant that tactics had to change, and this led to trench warfare. Particularly in Britain and France, trench warfare is what we think of when we think of the First World War, although it was prominent in other fronts. Guarded by barbed wire and machine gun nests it emerged as a way for Entente forces to hold the German lines as they took Amiens and started towards Paris, and for the Germans to hold the territory they took while being attacked. Trench warfare was brutal. Erich Maria Remarque in his famous novel <i>All Quiet on the Western Front</i>, based off of his own experiences in the Western front, shows the drudgery of trench warfare - stuck in squalid conditions and facing shelling from enemy artillery. Disease spread rapidly throughout the trenches - it is no surprise that disease killed more people than actual fighting. In 1915 First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill hoped to avoid trench warfare and take the Central Powers from below. He hoped that landing at the Dardanelles allied forces could move up the Turkish coast and take Istanbul, hopefully knocking out the Ottoman Empire. The Gallipoli Campaign is most famous for the birth of Australian and New Zealand national identity as ANZAC first appeared, and the death of 8,000 Australians alone inspired a national myth to emerge. Indians also fought at Gallipoli, 3,000 fought and around half were killed. The Ottoman forces still had many casualties, again largely through disease, as trench warfare erupted instead of Churchill's desired push to Istanbul. Future Turkish president, and 'father of the Turks', Mustafa Kemal Bey made his mark at Gallipoli by fending off the Entente forces. In January 1916 the campaign was called off as the Entente forces were ravaged by war and disease. The Ottoman forces also suffered, but their connection to supply lines managed to mitigate some of the poor conditions. Although, the Gallipoli Campaign, and the promise of Austrian land, influenced Italian intervention on the side of the Entente - similarly trench warfare broke out on the Italian front.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Troops in German East Africa</td></tr>
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The First World War was not simply a case of bringing in new weaponry and failing to adapt. We regularly see innovations being developed, and tacticians working around it. Although it is also due to these innovations that the First World War became so destructive. As early as 1914 tear gas was used to slow down enemy troops, the Germans tried and failed to use bromide against Russian forces outside of Warsaw in January 1915, and at the Third Battle of Ypres in 1917 mustard gas managed wreck havoc on soldiers. Similarly, tanks and planes were first utilised in the war - planes were first used for reconnaissance and later for battles. <i>All Quiet on the Western Front </i>depicts the characters betting on who would win a dog fight, and one of Germany's 'ace-of-war' with 80 confirmed victories was the pilot Manfred von Richthofen, the famous 'Red Baron'. Transport and communication meant that the line between the front and home, in areas unoccupied that is, became increasingly blurred. Soldiers could get access to newspapers and letters from home quickly, and mostly had access to a supply of food - often though at the expense of the civilian population. Even 'backwards' Russia managed to use railways to move around troops and send orders, although German and Austrian advances following the Battle of Tannenburg did hinder this by threatening the railway connections. Guerrilla warfare was even utilised. Although causing great casualties and inspiring his African forces to go AWOL, General Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck in German East Africa (modern Tanzania) led a guerrilla campaign hoping this would tie down Entente forces. Called <i>'Safari ya Bwana Lettow' </i>by his troops, the East African Schutztruppe managed to last until 1918.</div>
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<b>Domestic Fronts</b></div>
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With so many states taking part across the world we cannot talk about one singular domestic front. During the First World War we see the entire blurring of civilians and militaries as entire societies and economies went towards the fighting of the war. Propaganda was produced to bolster national unity and support the war effort - the image of Lord Kitchener saying 'We need you' became one of the most famous propaganda posters, which in turn inspired the Uncle Sam variant. Unfortunately, propaganda was also used to demonise minorities within the nation. German propaganda encouraged Germans to avoid Japanese businesses, and many were interned in Ruhleben camp outside of Berlin. Similarly, after US entry propaganda demonised its sizeable German population which, in turn, encouraged Prohibition - many breweries were German-owned so drinking alcohol became a way to help the enemy. Russian Tsar Nicholas II renamed St. Petersburg to Petrograd to make it sound less German, and the British monarchy changed their name to Windsor for this reason as well. Propaganda was also used to encourage buying war bonds, to fund the war effort, and even donate cutlery to be turned into bullets. Even Daylight Savings Time being implemented was a result of the war - states needed to maximise food production, especially Germany and Austria suffering thanks to the naval blockades.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrs2rKZrci9Lpz7mVwjcKaufdZ9mnaKoldfzKr1UwJ1jugiiIgJ6lETW-pko-oryJV6UZ3VMHaEjllyEp9hcXtK1btz1huXWj9yoQW2zCtsF3_tHwWIIfXgN533yFj27vIovAs79SZP-m3/s1600/women-at-war-in-world-war-one.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="823" data-original-width="1600" height="164" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrs2rKZrci9Lpz7mVwjcKaufdZ9mnaKoldfzKr1UwJ1jugiiIgJ6lETW-pko-oryJV6UZ3VMHaEjllyEp9hcXtK1btz1huXWj9yoQW2zCtsF3_tHwWIIfXgN533yFj27vIovAs79SZP-m3/s320/women-at-war-in-world-war-one.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Women in an artillery factory</td></tr>
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Where you were in the world determined how the war affected you. If you lived in a German or Russian city you would experience famines due to food shortages as what little food was diverted to the frontline - these shortages were caused by blockades in Germany, and the loss of arable land to invading forces in Russia. Meanwhile, in Japan, life would largely go on unaffected, while you might be occupied by foreign forces in Belgium. The war further caused great demographic shifts. With men off to war suddenly huge areas of the economy became vacant, so women filled in the roles. Female employment skyrocketed during the First World War as many middle and upper class women entered positions which were traditionally barred women - this ranged from bus conductors to armament factory workers. Leading feminists, like Emmeline Pankhurst, encouraged women to enter the workforce and support the war effort based on a mixture of nationalism, and the hope that entering work would dispel notions of female inferiority. Similarly, with the industrial boom to fund the war effort, and racism in the South, encouraged African-Americans to begin moving to the North, which began the 'Great Migration' changing the demographics of American cities. This was not limited to the US. European powers relied heavily on colonial troops, and people rapidly moved across the world. Throughout the war the people of Flanders met troops from the German, American, British, French, Portuguese, and their own empire, and their accounts show bewilderment of the diversity of people from the empires. Jane de Launoy's diary presents a racist depiction of North African and Arabic troops. </div>
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<b>Brutality of War</b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQV4_pwXQE2sIMB3BSKIwdxZYu2oUCfa-CdHJmL5fh7_BbwOPm_uYdhuTSwUmDh_xUEvgYEdxFrlTGx6t4y79PngaJt1_RRtaMbzGE1gzAAnDH5XLFrRQ7IdQXO2h_oIxlVPXdPVUQZqZZ/s1600/gun-crew-American-infantry-support-pom-pom-advance.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="398" data-original-width="500" height="254" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQV4_pwXQE2sIMB3BSKIwdxZYu2oUCfa-CdHJmL5fh7_BbwOPm_uYdhuTSwUmDh_xUEvgYEdxFrlTGx6t4y79PngaJt1_RRtaMbzGE1gzAAnDH5XLFrRQ7IdQXO2h_oIxlVPXdPVUQZqZZ/s320/gun-crew-American-infantry-support-pom-pom-advance.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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In popular memory we are left with stories of how brutal the war was on all fronts, ranging from <i>All Quiet on the Western Front </i>to even <i>The Lord of the Rings</i>. J.R.R. Tolkien fought at the Somme, and the destruction he saw made him romantic for a pre-industrialised age where this level of destruction was impossible. It is no surprising, as shown by Irina Davidian, why so many Russian soldiers resorted to drink to cope with the war. To try and break the British naval blockade, and also to starve out the British, Germany would order its U-boats to undertake 'unrestricted naval warfare' which involved sinking all ships around Britain. Land battles were also brutal. We have already discussed Gallipoli, but it was just one of many drawn out battles to claim thousands of lives. The first day of the Battle of the Somme on July 1 1916 was the most devastating day for the British Army in all of its history where it sustained 57,470 casualties, of which 19,240 were killed. Most of those killed in the war were working-class, and a staple of the conflict was that colonial forces would more likely be killed. In Britain, the thousands killed became known as the 'Lost Generation'; and this legacy still impacts Britain today. Consequently, you often see the leaders of the armies - such as Alexander Haig, Erich von Ludendorff etc. - presented as bumbling fools leading thousands to their deaths.</div>
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<b>The Enemy Within, and the War against Humanity</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzqmC99vFtpc_rsBwCtXjVUEkE1f-4cSkOYSRd9kvCk3kav_7o5fwtRuWv6AcCwfearwb9Y4VMf8SpQAJsl0aklVnYiFOhu0uoUlQP1jwqi_zfh9Y8PzP28fmU6X36DuloGxiwudQHDjJM/s1600/300px-Bundesarchiv_DVM_10_Bild-23-61-17%252C_Untergang_der__Lusitania_.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="194" data-original-width="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzqmC99vFtpc_rsBwCtXjVUEkE1f-4cSkOYSRd9kvCk3kav_7o5fwtRuWv6AcCwfearwb9Y4VMf8SpQAJsl0aklVnYiFOhu0uoUlQP1jwqi_zfh9Y8PzP28fmU6X36DuloGxiwudQHDjJM/s1600/300px-Bundesarchiv_DVM_10_Bild-23-61-17%252C_Untergang_der__Lusitania_.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Sinking of the <i>Lusitania</i></td></tr>
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It is a myth that until recent wars that civilians were never considered a target, but the First World War meant that whether it was an intention or not, they would be affected. As stated by Eric Hobsbawm, during the Napoleonic Wars Jane Austen could write novels which make no reference to the conflict, but in World War One this was far from the case. Even though propaganda dramatised the 'Rape of Belgium' to turn America against Germany - former president Theodore Roosevelt said that for this the US had to seek justice for them - but there was a serious war against the population. In response to resistance German battalions responded by executing potential offenders. Famously, in 1915 German submarines sank the British cruise liner the <i>Lusitania </i>which caused outrage for the civilian casualties - especially in the US as 128 of those killed were American citizens. However, Germany was not the only state to commit atrocities. British Lieutenant Godfrey Herbert in 1915 had the survivors of the <i>U-27</i> submarine summarily executed, and the blockade of German ports meant that vital food and medicine supplies were stropped. Somewhere between 400,000 and 700,000 people died of disease and starvation as a result of the blockade. All sides were willing to execute civilians deemed untrustworthy. States were further keen to watch 'the enemy within'. The earlier mentioned cases were just some examples. Minorities deemed to have 'foreign ties' were placed under surveillance, and even colonial forces were treated with distrust. For helping 200 soldiers escape German-occupied Belgium meant that British nurse Edith Cavell was shot by a German firing squad to international condemnation in 1915. Opponents of the war were also imprisoned internationally, many of whom were socialists. Among those arrested for advocating an end to the war including George Bernard Shaw in Britain, Eugene V. Debs in the US, and Rose Luxemburg in Germany.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjw7OkmZR_toeVotcyVMVc0ZgGs_40aAiB_8ZZtWVa_NkRQj-DlSNaAXzUra_X3cDCN8I7f06DijlhN_iko5aKdN81goUDvLni0stHkmSWVaUlGlaP7eLpoZIsjrLpmqxCdXMhzeoX4MZB5/s1600/Marcharmenians.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="420" data-original-width="665" height="202" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjw7OkmZR_toeVotcyVMVc0ZgGs_40aAiB_8ZZtWVa_NkRQj-DlSNaAXzUra_X3cDCN8I7f06DijlhN_iko5aKdN81goUDvLni0stHkmSWVaUlGlaP7eLpoZIsjrLpmqxCdXMhzeoX4MZB5/s320/Marcharmenians.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">An Armenian death march</td></tr>
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A fear of betrayal and war against humanity intersected in the form of genocide against Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks in the Ottoman Empire. The embracing of a particularly Turkish and Islamic identity in the 1800s meant that Christians within the Empire became increasingly mistrusted, and this became exacerbated by the outbreak of war. Due to Russian, with its Armenian populace, and Greek entry Christians were seen as having sympathies with those outside the Empire, and a domestic threat. The Young Turks themselves fought the Armenian armies raised by the Russian Empire, so this inspired the implementation of the Deportation Law following the Gallipoli Invasion. Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks were uprooted from their homes, including 200 prominent Armenians in Istanbul from 15 April 1915, and marched to guarded villages in the Syrian desert. This soon became a death march with many being killed via abuse from their Ottoman guards, or they died thanks to a lack of food, water, rest, and medicine. Those who were lucky found refuge in the multi-religious and multi-ethnic Beirut and wider Lebanon, but most were not as lucky. It is estimated that over a million Armenians; 250,000 Assyrians; and over 350,000 Greeks were killed in these death marches. Even today, Turkey, the successor to the Ottoman Empire, denies that a genocide took place, arguing instead that it was simply a 'massacre'. Many Armenians fled to the United States thanks to the genocide where they still live today. Unfortunately, this would not be the last instance of ethnic cleansing to happen in the First World War.</div>
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<b>The End of the War</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSmCowhgHIzS3O5H1D54jRbZuuKEHyUoZ6CqOCnBtVPbQ30UWxuRjlkHLewSkGx3Zb15G51T0pMeqQfKTUboZ4ycwJsfp7gJpcg5pEo8rfa0fjI3MuLFogUtLAA2Q3QlKdrFpYH3q4kvoJ/s1600/030Arab.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="353" data-original-width="600" height="188" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSmCowhgHIzS3O5H1D54jRbZuuKEHyUoZ6CqOCnBtVPbQ30UWxuRjlkHLewSkGx3Zb15G51T0pMeqQfKTUboZ4ycwJsfp7gJpcg5pEo8rfa0fjI3MuLFogUtLAA2Q3QlKdrFpYH3q4kvoJ/s320/030Arab.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Arab Revolt</td></tr>
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On the centenary of the end of the war we wrote a post about it which I highly recommend reading <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2018/11/history-in-focus-end-of-first-world-war.html">here</a>. By 1917, all combatants were desperate, and the strain of war was taking its toll. In 1916 Irish revolutionaries rose up in Dublin in the <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2019/04/left-wing-and-other-history-easter.html">Easter Rising</a> tired of Britain's rule; the ensuing British brutal retaliation destroyed Dublin and started turning Ireland against Britain. With the amount of people volunteering to join the military drying up many states after 1916 started introducing conscription causing a public backlash - a railroad strike organised by the Industrial Workers of the World in Australia brought New South Wales to a standstill. Desertion became prominent, especially in Russia, and executions for desertion turned more people against the war; in April 1917 there was a wave of mutinies within the French army. Empires began crumbling. As early as 1915 the Amir of Mecca Sharif Husayn made contact with British high commissioner in Egypt Henry McMahon offering an alliance - for Ottoman Arabic land he would fight the Ottomans for the Entente. This was difficult because by 1917 the British and French had vowed to carve Ottoman possessions between the two of them, and also promising to open up Palestine to Jewish settlement. Regardless, in June 1916 Husayn's son Faysal attacked the Ottoman garrison at Mecca sparking the Arab Revolt. Aided by Captain T.E. Lawrence, 'Lawrence of Arabia', swept across the Arabian peninsula, through Gaza, and up to Damascus. Meanwhile, discontent following the death of the elderly Franz Joseph meant that the disparate parts of Austria-Hungary started becoming increasingly independent, and a Czech legion was even formed in France. Finally, a strike by women over bread in Petrograd spiralled into the February Revolution in 1917 which deposed Nicholas II, a topic for next time, and issued in a provisional government under Alexander Kerensky which tried to continue the war. German generals, who now ran the government, Erich von Ludendorff and Paul von Hindenburg wanted to see Russia out of the war thanks to the earlier success of the Brusilov Offensive, so they spirited Marxist revolutionary Vladimir Lenin into Russia. The ensuing October Revolution resulted in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk taking Russia out of the war. However, a new power had just entered: the United States.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgCNPM4s3X9dIfEcOtcIGqIqO-bbiNz9-OJwogSUJPK61HODYBn-GpGdern5KEYErUUvuJ7CsZVd57W4y64kAP5eMbJIxgQ9S6-yKa1gx93ZH1CKZQOODVe1nsNSunspjpMrJiAZMBr_kVC/s1600/Armisticetrain_%2528slight_crop%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="673" data-original-width="504" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgCNPM4s3X9dIfEcOtcIGqIqO-bbiNz9-OJwogSUJPK61HODYBn-GpGdern5KEYErUUvuJ7CsZVd57W4y64kAP5eMbJIxgQ9S6-yKa1gx93ZH1CKZQOODVe1nsNSunspjpMrJiAZMBr_kVC/s320/Armisticetrain_%2528slight_crop%2529.jpg" width="239" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Signing the November Armistice</td></tr>
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US president Woodrow Wilson had wanted to keep neutral, but German submarine warfare and Entente propaganda made the American public sympathetic to the Entente. A desperate Germany, wanting any ally they could find, sent a letter from Foreign Secretary Arthur Zimmerman to the Mexican government offering to help Mexico in a war against the US to seize lost Mexican land. British spies managed to get the Zimmerman Telegram, and leaked it. In reality, with Mexico having no clear way to fight the Entente, and being in the midst of a revolutionary period, it would not have sided with the Central Powers. However, it, and the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare, infuriated the American population, and Wilson declared war. Wilson was hostile to European diplomacy, and was determined for a lasting peace so created his now famous 14 Points calling for an end to secret treaties, self-determination for (European) peoples, peace, free trade, freedom of the seas, and an association of nations. He thought this would make a stable world, and oppose Lenin's recently issued call for peace. Ludendorff and Hindenburg rightly feared that they would lose the war if America managed to mobilise their economy. In an effort to finally knock out the French, and managed to push their way through northern France. However, it did not have the desired consequences. The German supply lines were stretched, so that when the Entente undertook their 100 Days' Offensive their lines folded. Meanwhile, Faysal's forces swept up to Damascus and the Italian navy managed to wipe out the Austrians. In October German sailors mutinied at Kiel sparking the end of the German Empire. An armistice was signed on November 11 1918 bringing the war to an end.</div>
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<b>Aftermath</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNCdOwdQrJ2zXJvXTiSHkIgwrAvx7xvGHRZAkEg5eSpfwg-mqgoY7hSzTe9vjrC2wSXWsBg6G7b-HozLvjSYcsx8u8sRsRBGDYq52u0CaiKHWlORjgrzji0_fMOqqQ-alecAeTmO1PTVee/s1600/hitler-ww1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="417" data-original-width="400" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNCdOwdQrJ2zXJvXTiSHkIgwrAvx7xvGHRZAkEg5eSpfwg-mqgoY7hSzTe9vjrC2wSXWsBg6G7b-HozLvjSYcsx8u8sRsRBGDYq52u0CaiKHWlORjgrzji0_fMOqqQ-alecAeTmO1PTVee/s320/hitler-ww1.jpg" width="306" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Hitler on the far-right during WW1</td></tr>
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The following peace treaties, including the Treaty of Versailles of 1919, shaped the world. From the aftermath of the war various new states came into being including Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Finland. Wilson's desire for the 14 Points were cast aside at Versailles as the victorious Entente wished to punish Germany - France and Belgium both seized German land, Germany was forced to accept war guilt, and had to pay 132 billion gold marks in reparations. Much to the anger of Japan, and the young Vietnamese nationalist who would become Ho Chi Minh, imperialism and Wilson's own racism meant that racial equality was ignored. The remnants of the German and Ottoman Empires were annexed as 'mandates' - a euphemism for colonies. Wartime censorship, and the movement of peoples thanks to the war, allowed the spread of Spanish Influenza which killed up to three times as many people as the war did itself. Similarly, many states were dissatisfied with the aftermath of the war. The German far-right would claim that they were 'stabbed-in-the-back' by Jews and socialists, this myth would help propel Hitler to power in later years. Japan, angered at being treated as a secondary power, would also go down a path towards militarism. The seeds for the Second World War would be planted during the First. Erwin Rommel, Hitler, Tojo Hideki, Mussolini, Charles de Gaulle, Rudolph Hess, and Churchill were just some of the main figures of the Second World War who would fought in the First. A generation of writers and artists, including a key figure of the Harlem Renaissance Langston Hughes, would continue to reflect on their experiences of the war. Finally, in the aftermath of the war it was widely described as 'the war to end all wars', but, as we have seen, wars have continued to devastate lives over the last century. Echoing the somber words of Eric Hobsbawm, the First World War was not the end of wars, it was instead the beginning of the short and bloody Twentieth Century.</div>
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The sources I have used are as follows:</div>
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-Eric Hobsbawm, <i>The Age of Extremes, 1914-1991</i>, (London: 1994)</div>
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-Martin Gilbert, <i>First World War</i>, (London: 1995)</div>
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-Christopher Clark, <i>The Sleepwalkers: How Europe went to War in 1914</i>, (London: 2012)</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
-Santanu Das, (ed.), <i>Race, Empire and First World War Writing</i>, (Cambridge: 2011)</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
-Hugh Cecil and Peter Liddle, (eds.), <i>Facing Armageddon: The First World War Experienced</i>, (London: 1996)</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
-David Stevenson, <i>1914-1918: The History of the First World War</i>, (London: 2004)</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
-James Joll, <i>The Origins of the First World War</i>, Second Edition, (London: 1992)</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
-Samuel Hynes, <i>A War Imagined: The First World War and English Culture</i>, (London: 1990)</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
-Eric Foner, <i>Give Me Liberty! An American History</i>, Fourth Edition, (New York: 2014)</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
-William Cleveland and Martin Bunton, <i>A History of the Modern Middle East</i>, Sixth Edition, (Boulder: 2016)</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
-Erich Maria Remarque, <i>All Quiet on the Western Front</i>, Trans. A.W. Wheen Fawcett Crest, (Berlin: 1929)</div>
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Next time, we will be looking at the Russian Revolution and the formation of the Soviet Union. Thank you for reading, and I hope you found it interesting. For other World History posts we have a list <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/p/world-history.html">here</a>, for other blog posts please check our <a href="https://www.facebook.com/TwibyHistoryGeekStuff/">Facebook</a> or catch me on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/lewistwiby?lang=en">@LewisTwiby.</a></div>
Lewis Twibyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03565517444017278980noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6707020941988899278.post-61295598443516472652020-03-15T07:00:00.002-07:002020-03-15T07:00:39.256-07:00Review: A Tale of Two Cities by Jesse Hoffnung-Garskof<br />
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><i>This article was first published by Retrospect Journal on 11 November 2019, and can be read <a href="https://retrospectjournal.com/2019/11/17/review-a-tale-of-two-cities-by-jesse-hoffnung-garskof/">here</a>.</i></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">New York City remains one
of the most culturally diverse cities in the United States seeing emigration
from across the world for centuries. One of the many communities to call New
York home is the Dominican community which Jesse Hoffnung-Garskof looks at in
his 2008 book </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">A Tale of Two Cities: Santo Domingo and New York after 1950</i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
Hoffnung-Garskof offers an interesting insight into how diasporas and culture
are formed. He is also keen to stress that diasporas do not exist in a vacuum –
they interact with both the ‘homeland’ and other diasporas.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">As expected,
Hoffnung-Garskof begins his book in the capital of the Dominican Republic –
Santo Domingo. Here he explores the twin ideas which would shape Dominican
history: <i>progreso</i> and <i>cultura</i>. <i>Progreso</i>, the idea that Dominicans were moving
to an improved life, and cultura, that Dominicans had to exhibit certain
cultural tropes to achieve <i>progreso</i>, would shape both Santo Domingo and New
York. A recurrent theme throughout the book is how <i>progreso</i> and <i>cultura</i> evolved
in the context of migration. Rural Dominicans saw Santo Domingo as being one of
the most important places contributing to <i>cultura</i>, but New York was seen as the
pinnacle of <i>cultura</i>. These ideas were also in flux thanks to the turbulent
politics of the republic – the genocidal rule of Rafael Trujillo lasted until
his assassination in 1961, followed by the dictatorship of Joaquin Balaguer, US
occupation, and a turbulent revolution. In Santo Domingo, Hoffnung-Garskof,
relying heavily on oral testimony: emerging barrios (which became shantytowns)
saw an explosion of grassroots culture and political activism giving ample
opportunity to hear subaltern voices. For example, Hoffnung-Garskof shows how
<i>cultura</i> was seen as being Catholic, speaking Spanish, and, unfortunately,
racialised against Haitians where those in the barrios turned <i>cultura</i> on its
head. Political radicals would have their meetings at church services, and
young men would play loud music in Spanish as a way to rebel without being
attacked by the police.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Moving away from Santo
Domingo, Hoffnung-Garskof then takes us to Washington Heights, Manhattan where
the Dominican diaspora emerged. Originally, the diaspora was made of radicals
exiled by either Trujillo or Balaguer, but as air costs became cheaper more and
more Domincans moved to the land of ‘<i>progeso y cultura</i>.’ In what is perhaps the
most interesting section of the book Hoffnung-Garskof looks at how the newly
arrived Dominicans became racialised in Manhattan. These Dominicans were from a
middle-class background back in the Dominican Republic, but found themselves in
a working-class situation; this caused a paradoxical situation when returning
home to visit family members. Dominicans would engage in American consumerism
which their family would take as signs of wealth, but <i>domínicanes de Nueva
York </i>had to try to explain that they were not wealthy. Meanwhile, they were
forced into the racialised world of American society. For generations,
Dominicans had considered themselves ‘white’ against ‘black’ Haitians, which
caused Trujillo to massacre thousands of Haitians to ‘whiten’ the country, but
they were not seen this way in Washington Heights. The area had a large Irish,
Jewish, African-American, and Puerto Rican communities, so Dominicans were
forced to reinvent their identity based on the ever-changing categories of
class, race, and culture in Manhattan. Hoffnung-Garskof effectively shows this
with his wide range of oral testimony from various community members in
Manhattan – easily the strongest aspect of the book is his ample usage of
first-hand testimony. However, he could have expanded Manhattan’s history of
immigration here a lot more. Jewish and Irish communities are mentioned, but
are somewhat overlooked, and the city’s vibrant East Asia, Cuban, Arabic, South
Asian, and African diasporas are entirely ignored. It would have been
interesting to see how they factored into the Dominican experience in shaping
their identity.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Hoffnung-Garskof in the
early-1990s worked as a social worker for Dominican families in the Washington
Heights schools, and his lengthy discussion of diasporas in schools is his most
detailed section. Again, using interviews he manages to recreate, in detail,
the various lives of Dominican students, and how they forged their own lives. We
see some using their wealth to become doctors, others joining with
African-American rights groups like Umoja to fight for rights, or clash with
African-Americans and Puerto Ricans over racial animosities. Reading it you can
tell this has been a passion of his for a long time, and how he deeply cares
about the community. This especially seen when he discusses the crack epidemic
of the 1990s – Washington Heights became synonymous with drug crime in the US
media. He rebukes many of the common motives associated with Dominicans during
the time showing it as a crisis of capital, rather than moral failing. My
particular favourite point was how he criticised leading attorney, and later
New York mayor and Donald Trump’s personal lawyer, Rudy Giuliani for targeting
Dominican youths in his exposé on crack, but entirely ignoring the crack
epidemic of the Wall Street elite. However, as Hoffnung-Garskof is so invested
in the lives of the people of Washington Heights, it does break the flow of the
entire narrative. He was so eager to show us the entirety of Washington Heights
that we read biography after biography in just two chapters that it at times
becomes hard to read. If anything, and hopefully he might do this in the
future, these narratives could become its very own piece of historical writing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Finally, I just want to
quickly discuss how Hoffnung-Garskof links diasporas to the ‘homeland.’ As
mentioned earlier, the diaspora was not cut-off from the Dominican Republic –
ranging from family visits ‘home’ at Christmas to exiled leftists waiting for
the fall of the US-backed regime. Here the twin ideas of <i>cultura</i> and <i>progreso</i>
come into play. On the one hand, the New York based community were seen with a
sense of pride back in Santo Domingo. The regular Dominican Day parades,
growing affluence of the community, and even Dominicans partaking in beauty
pageants were viewed as Dominicans achieving <i>progreso</i> – they had become the
immigrant community to be emulated. However, they were simultaneously degraded
as going against <i>cultura</i>. Women going out of the home, children engaging in
American consumerism, and the adoption of American fashions were viewed as
Dominicans becoming too Americanised. <i>Domínicannewyork </i>was invented to
lambast a diaspora deemed too American. Nevertheless, American-based Dominicans
still viewed themselves as ‘Dominican’ and not ‘Dominican-American.’ Newspapers
like <i>Ahora! </i>reported on events in both New York and Santo Domingo, and
the right to vote in Dominican elections was eventually granted to the
diaspora. Hoffnung-Garskof ensures that the themes of <i>cultura</i> and <i>progreso</i> are never
forgotten in the narrative.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">For anyone interested in
the histories of immigration, the formation of identity, and diasporas then <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A Tale of Two Cities </i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">is a must read. Almost, at times, needing a
smoother narrative, Hoffnung-Garskof’s investment in the diaspora makes it an
engaging read, and the abundancy of oral testimony makes the names on the pages
into living, breathing people. He has recently released a book about Cubans and
Puerto Ricans in New York, so hopefully we can see more of his writing soon.</span></span></div>
Lewis Twibyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03565517444017278980noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6707020941988899278.post-49389122145801467682020-03-08T09:32:00.001-07:002020-03-08T09:32:40.843-07:00Left-Wing and the 'Other' History: International Women's Day<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2b90JtgQlmnZhOrHRYF-ni39AuF2g7jw8Q8f5LEvMCNN7mKzVRwlxnM5sWe00brcr9bYv99vh0H-32xYpNY18ycDytVQE8YNjINPvLHFrA81anv-baiGYaB4-kr5QT4fLu9iQC9Az8MMj/s1600/Frauentag_1914_Heraus_mit_dem_Frauenwahlrecht.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1241" data-original-width="800" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2b90JtgQlmnZhOrHRYF-ni39AuF2g7jw8Q8f5LEvMCNN7mKzVRwlxnM5sWe00brcr9bYv99vh0H-32xYpNY18ycDytVQE8YNjINPvLHFrA81anv-baiGYaB4-kr5QT4fLu9iQC9Az8MMj/s320/Frauentag_1914_Heraus_mit_dem_Frauenwahlrecht.jpg" width="206" /></a></div>
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As I am writing this it is International Women's Day 2020, and across the world marches are taking place to highlight gender inequality which still exists worldwide. However, the radical origins of International Women's Day has largely been overlooked as it has been co-opted by wider society - similar protest movements and celebrations, such as the Notting Hill Carnival and Gay Pride have seen similar co-optation. Today we will look at the history of International Women's Day, and how it came about.</div>
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<b>Origins</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhGKdDX1MRAPgtKVu930Oargp9880_7COnC3T44VXMa_4TSotYz1X-XC7aFSFnKqUsWLvC4BvgYwO4uzDeDpQHBKV2rkFbLVJi4NR_eE9oJVHMInZduSYTR9X1tLrql8oWZXMZY9iLQ_Kus/s1600/Theresa_Malkiel.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="416" data-original-width="330" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhGKdDX1MRAPgtKVu930Oargp9880_7COnC3T44VXMa_4TSotYz1X-XC7aFSFnKqUsWLvC4BvgYwO4uzDeDpQHBKV2rkFbLVJi4NR_eE9oJVHMInZduSYTR9X1tLrql8oWZXMZY9iLQ_Kus/s320/Theresa_Malkiel.jpg" width="253" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Theresa Malkiel</td></tr>
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International Women's Day (IWD) had its origins firmly with the socialist labour movement. Ukrainian-born activist Theresa Malkiel, of the American Socialist Party, first advocated for a National Women's Day in the early-1900s, seeing it as a way to draw attention to the twin oppressions that women faced: through class exploitation and sexism. Even among the socialist movement, there was sexism, so women like Malkiel often had to challenge misogyny in the labour movement, as well as misogyny in society as a whole. However, despite sexism in the labour movement, they were more receptive to women's issues, and the American Left had influential women within the movement - especially with figures like Emma Goldman and Lucy Parsons. Malkiel had long been an advocate for a separate socialist women's group with the intention of bringing women into the labour movement, and to also fight for women's rights seeing the mainstream feminist organisations as only benefiting middle and upper-class women. In 1909 she managed to organise the first National Women's Day, just a year after she helped found the Women's National Committee, in solidarity with the various women's strikes and marches for suffrage and equality.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrRDiEe48JitbgYC8jInkQzTmR7pPO6kniSiepdV-H2yqNlopuB7oayXW4jtQKNmcbu7CVuTIfZR5G6O3fOh2Y05xbLtQqdCsF4uMpSL5bxIEgsr8tDJzp4a4e9MRIdbpnpY-nyNf6BwtT/s1600/Aleksandra_Kollontaj_10.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="300" data-original-width="206" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrRDiEe48JitbgYC8jInkQzTmR7pPO6kniSiepdV-H2yqNlopuB7oayXW4jtQKNmcbu7CVuTIfZR5G6O3fOh2Y05xbLtQqdCsF4uMpSL5bxIEgsr8tDJzp4a4e9MRIdbpnpY-nyNf6BwtT/s1600/Aleksandra_Kollontaj_10.gif" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Alexandra Kollontai</td></tr>
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Inspired by Malkiel's Women's March European socialists also wanted to create a women's movement. The European Left, especially in Germany, had a strong feminist current - in 1889 Clara Zetkin had written a pamphlet called <i>Women-Worker and Feminist Issues of Our Time</i> which called for women to receive wage labour, as it would make women independent from men, and would force men to treat women as equals. A women's section of the Second International, which aimed to unite the principally Marxist left-wing movements, met in Copenhagen in 1910, and with 100 delegates there was a unanimous decision to declare an International Women's Day. Among those who attended included the well-known Clara Zetkin, and Alexandra Kollontai, one of the major Russian socialist feminists who is also seen as inspiring the rise of the feminist movement in Scandinavia. Quoting Zetking,</div>
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<i>In agreement with the class-conscious, political and trade union organizations of the proletariat of their respective countries, the Socialist women of all countries will hold each year a Women's Day, whose foremost purpose it must be to aid the attainment of women's suffrage. This demand must be handled in conjunction with the entire women's question according to Socialist precepts. The Women's Day must have an international character and is to be prepared carefully.</i></blockquote>
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Kollontai would stress that the aims of an IWD would be to attain suffrage for women, and social security, like maternity leave, so that women could be more independent than men. Originally, it was held on 19 March, not 8 March, to coincide with German history and the current fight for suffrage. As Kollontai said:</div>
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<i>This date was not chosen at random. Our German comrades picked the day because of its historic importance for the German proletariat. On the 19th of March in the year of 1848 revolution, the Prussian king recognized for the first time the strength of the armed people and gave way before the threat of a proletarian uprising. Among the many promise he made, which he later failed to keep, was the introduction of votes for women.</i></blockquote>
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The first IWD was held the following year, 1911, and marches were held across Denmark, Germany, Switzerland, and the Austro-Hungarian empire. In Austria-Hungary there were 300 protests, and in Vienna women carried banners honoring the Paris Commune of 1871, often seen as one of the first steps in creating a modern socialist system. In 1914, on March 8, in Germany and Britain women marched for the right to vote - famous radical suffragette Sylvia Pankhurst was even arrested - and since then it has been universally celebrated on March 8.</div>
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<b>The Soviet Union and IWD</b></div>
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Until the coming of the Russian Revolution the Russian Empire still used the Julian Calendar so March 8 landed on 23 February instead. Russia suffered immensely during the First World War, and losses to Germany meant that food became scarcer and more rights were infringed. So, on March 8/February 23, women textile workers in the capital of Petrograd, modern St. Petersburg, went on strike demanding 'Bread and Peace'. Russian revolutionary Leon Trotsky later remembered that no-one imagined that it would be IWD which ended up toppling the Russian Empire. Striking men, including from the army, joined the women, began forming Workers' Council (Soviets), and forced the tsar to abdicate issuing in the Provisional Russian Republic. This weak and unpopular state, however, was later overthrown in October/November by Lenin's Bolsheviks issuing in what would become the Soviet Union. Lenin and the Bolsheviks saw their role as ending the 'humiliating resignation to the perpetual and atmosphere of the kitchen and nursery' which women were forced to endure, and Alexandra Kollontai was brought into the government to end gender inequality. Kollontai's influence would mean that the IWD would become an official holiday in the Soviet Union, however, it took until 1965 for it to become a non-working day. Thanks to the Russian Civil War, and reversal of gender equality under Stalin followed by the legacies of Stalinisation of the Soviet Union, it took so long to become a non-working holiday. Even then, it had to be framed as a 'reward' for participating in 'the Great Patriotic War' (the Second World War). Thanks to the Soviet Union, socialist movements would strive to make IWD celebrated worldwide.</div>
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<b>IWD on a Global Scale</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjT-qh84urwwjpSzoicBefPNb_lyMuLhL76QhpeWA3pO9kspbZw5un_7LoWXIY-8EczIKo9sYFr9wUqOQH2UYDJdHRncrwyRgxyBfqXi0d2sLnv_4Zkfk3k06Nmqf1ENUQ15e7UJw99kpZW/s1600/NSW_Builders_Labourers_march_on_IWD_1975.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="332" data-original-width="474" height="224" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjT-qh84urwwjpSzoicBefPNb_lyMuLhL76QhpeWA3pO9kspbZw5un_7LoWXIY-8EczIKo9sYFr9wUqOQH2UYDJdHRncrwyRgxyBfqXi0d2sLnv_4Zkfk3k06Nmqf1ENUQ15e7UJw99kpZW/s320/NSW_Builders_Labourers_march_on_IWD_1975.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">Female members of the Australian Builders Labourers Federation march on International Women's Day 1975 in Sydney</span></td></tr>
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Quickly Left-wing movements globally began formally and informally campaigning for IWD, and for it to bring together demands for women's rights. China, in particular, saw the Left celebrate IWD with the communists first celebrating it in 1922. A staggering 25,000 people, mainly women, marched in the city of Guangzhou in 1927 to bring awareness of women's rights. Following the declaration of the People's Republic of China in 1949 it was declared that March 8 would be a half-day off for women - something which happens despite the gradual reversal of Maoist era policies by the new state capitalist politicians. Similarly, IWD was declared a holiday in several states which claimed to be socialist or Left-wing worldwide, ranging from Dolores Iburruri in 1936 organising one in Madrid just before to Civil War, to Cuba, to Angola. With the rise of second-wave feminism in the 1960s IWD started coming more into the mainstream as feminists highlighted pay inequality, reproductive rights, anti-sexism, and equality in the domestic sphere on March 8. Finally, just as the socialists of 1910 wanted, women were using IWD on a wide and global scale to assert their rights. Due to the direct action of second-wave feminism it allowed IWD to go beyond the socialist left, and started being picked up by a wide range of feminists. Thanks to the actions of feminists, this got the UN to declare 1975 the 'International Women's Year', and since 1977 have asked member states to make March 8 a day to recognise women. Thanks to the second-wave feminists, even in states where it is not a recognised holiday, people in their thousands still march to show the continued inequality in society.</div>
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<b>Recent changes in IWD</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4AJ9dXfx7bQiXxiGmwWM4UZtgK2cs8JyeyGKHjixY-pURkfBUR17HEbIE06ArxEZJES1FH2qppleUXZk2WX2mBlt2xdFOH9CDbT48vLDuDMM1xu0FR2SHY2HgJ6D9oYToKcRoqXJ7yegJ/s1600/1280px-Concentraci%25C3%25B3n_del_Sindicato_de_Estudiantes_por_la_Huelga_Feminista_8M_2019.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="960" data-original-width="1280" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4AJ9dXfx7bQiXxiGmwWM4UZtgK2cs8JyeyGKHjixY-pURkfBUR17HEbIE06ArxEZJES1FH2qppleUXZk2WX2mBlt2xdFOH9CDbT48vLDuDMM1xu0FR2SHY2HgJ6D9oYToKcRoqXJ7yegJ/s320/1280px-Concentraci%25C3%25B3n_del_Sindicato_de_Estudiantes_por_la_Huelga_Feminista_8M_2019.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A return to activism in Spain, 2019</td></tr>
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Unfortunately, one of the consequences of IWD becoming a widespread event was the co-optation of IWD by those oppressing women. In Russia IWD has become sidelined and is now used to show stereotypical female beauty, a far-cry from the egalitarian aims for women empowerment which Kollontai imagined; China still uses it as a national holiday for women, despite it trying to reverse women's access to abortions and justice following sexual abuse; and in many countries, big businesses often attach themselves to IWD, despite paying women less than men (especially if they are disabled or non-white), cover up sexual abuse, and generally exploit women. Similarly, especially in Europe, North America, Australia, and New Zealand, IWD has been attempted to be turned into a day for a specific type of feminism - one that excludes non-white women, sex workers, poor women, and openly calls for discrimination against trans women. However, there are many cases where there is a pushback against this. In 2007 women activists in Tehran used IWD as a way to protest the incredible inequality which they face, and went on hunger strike for fifteen days after their arrest for 'inciting violence'. Iranian women like Shadi Sadr highlights how women were bringing IWD back to its radical roots. In the last few years IWD has become increasingly radical as, despite years of a fictitious equality, sexism and misogyny was still prevalent in society. For example, the Edinburgh IWD has specifically declared its IWD march to be pro-trans rights and anti-capitalist, and the international aspect is firmly present in 2020's IWD. During the November protests in Chile against social inequality a feminist theatre group, Lastesis, released the song and dance <i>Un Violador en tu Camino</i> - 'A Rapist in your path' - highlighting the institutional structures which allowed sexual abuse to go unpunished. This has been adopted worldwide, and is challenging the commodification of IWD. Inequality and oppression will always be met with resistance, no matter how many times people try to commodify it, and IWD stands to show this is the case.</div>
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Thank you for reading, and I hope you found it interesting. For other Left-Wing and the 'Other' posts we have a list <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/p/left-wing-and-other-history.html">here</a>. For future blog updates please see our <a href="https://www.facebook.com/TwibyHistoryGeekStuff/">Facebook</a> or catch me on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/LewisTwiby?ref_src=twsrc%5Egoogle%7Ctwcamp%5Eserp%7Ctwgr%5Eauthor">@LewisTwiby</a>.</div>
Lewis Twibyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03565517444017278980noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6707020941988899278.post-35101848908485071162020-03-01T06:49:00.002-08:002020-03-01T06:49:23.279-08:00Left-Wing and the 'Other' History: The Internationale<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i>The Internationale</i>, or <i>L'Internationale</i> with its original French title, has remained one of the most important and widespread left-wing anthems since its creation close to 150 years ago. If you have not heard the song this video below will be helpful:</div>
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<iframe width="320" height="266" class="YOUTUBE-iframe-video" data-thumbnail-src="https://i.ytimg.com/vi/PPExpmtdMEw/0.jpg" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/PPExpmtdMEw?feature=player_embedded" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe></div>
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This is just one of the several versions of the song in English alone. Originating as a French song, <i>L'Internationale </i>has been translated into languages across the world ranging from Czech to Esperanto to Zulu to Bengali reflecting the international ideal of the socialist movement. Especially among Marxists and anarchists, although there are exceptions, there has been a desire to build an international movement; borders were, and still argued to be, another way to exploit the working-class. It can be argued that internationalism is coded into the DNA of modern socialism - Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, and Mikhail Bakunin were all political exiles so <i>had </i>to rely on international support. <i>L'Internationale </i>emerged as part of this socialist internationalism.</div>
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<b>The Origins of the Song</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi64jQIfNQlCM1CdF7WCGGmIcnnNypl0noZU-gXJ8ftjk3UyaPjR45m-EYahRUEU3qighWoCc4-3r5DN2UKjClWAp3h0qqvQNxwiqJCiJHl_6AEd7rwNvlmaIAmTYLL-EFJOCi1VxM4-poX/s1600/800px-Eug%25C3%25A8ne_Pottier_par_%25C3%2589tienne_Carjat.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1413" data-original-width="800" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi64jQIfNQlCM1CdF7WCGGmIcnnNypl0noZU-gXJ8ftjk3UyaPjR45m-EYahRUEU3qighWoCc4-3r5DN2UKjClWAp3h0qqvQNxwiqJCiJHl_6AEd7rwNvlmaIAmTYLL-EFJOCi1VxM4-poX/s320/800px-Eug%25C3%25A8ne_Pottier_par_%25C3%2589tienne_Carjat.jpg" width="181" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Eugene Pottier</td></tr>
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The song was written by French socialist Eugene Pottier during the aftermath of the ill-fated Paris Commune of 1871. Following defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, and the declaration of the newly founded German Empire in the Palace of Versailles, French emperor Louis Napoleon, (the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte), fled and a shaky Third Republic was formed. In Paris, and a few other cities, the working-classes seized control and formed communes with the intention of radically changing society. Despite being called the 'Paris Commune' it always had an international trend to it - many of its leaders were Polish and Russian exiles, and workers from Britain, Germany, and Algeria helped construct the commune. However, the Paris Commune was brutally crushed by the French army, and it caused a rift in the first attempt to create an international movement of socialist - the First International. To summarise this rift, bear in mind this is a very simplified explanation, the followers of Karl Marx argued that it failed as the Commune was to ready to remove the state, while the followers of Mikhail Bakunin argued that they had left too much of the state intact which caused its failure. This rift has never been healed, and is why we have two main branches of socialist thought: Marxism and anarchism. It was this background that Pottier wrote the song. Pottier was a member of both the Commune and the Internationale, and his song became its anthem until it was dissolved in 1876.</div>
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<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Debout, les damnés de la terre</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Debout, les forçats de la faim</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>La raison tonne en son cratère</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>C'est l'éruption de la fin</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Du passé faisons table rase</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Foule esclave, debout, debout</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Le monde va changer de base</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Nous ne sommes rien, soyons tout</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i><u>Chorus</u></i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>C'est la lutte finale</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Groupons-nous, et demain</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>L'Internationale</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Sera le genre humain.</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Il n'est pas de sauveurs suprêmes</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Ni Dieu, ni César, ni tribun</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Producteurs, sauvons-nous nous-mêmes</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Décrétons le salut commun</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Pour que le voleur rende gorge</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Pour tirer l'esprit du cachot</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Soufflons nous-mêmes notre forge</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Battons le fer quand il est chaud.</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i><u>Chorus</u></i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>L'État comprime et la loi triche</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>L'impôt saigne le malheureux</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Nul devoir ne s'impose au riche</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Le droit du pauvre est un mot creux</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>C'est assez, languir en tutelle</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>L'égalité veut d'autres lois</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Pas de droits sans devoirs dit-elle</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Égaux, pas de devoirs sans droits.</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i><u>Chorus</u></i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Hideux dans leur apothéose</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Les rois de la mine et du rail</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Ont-ils jamais fait autre chose</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Que dévaliser le travail ?</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Dans les coffres-forts de la bande</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Ce qu'il a créé s'est fondu</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>En décrétant qu'on le lui rende</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Le peuple ne veut que son dû.</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i><u>Chorus</u></i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Les rois nous saoulaient de fumées</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Paix entre nous, guerre aux tyrans</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Appliquons la grève aux armées</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Crosse en l'air, et rompons les rangs</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>S'ils s'obstinent, ces cannibales</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>À faire de nous des héros</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Ils sauront bientôt que nos balles</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Sont pour nos propres généraux.</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i><u>Chorus</u></i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Ouvriers, paysans, nous sommes</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Le grand parti des travailleurs</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>La terre n'appartient qu'aux hommes</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>L'oisif ira loger ailleurs</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Combien de nos chairs se repaissent</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Mais si les corbeaux, les vautours</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Un de ces matins disparaissent</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>Le soleil brillera toujours.</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i><u>Chorus</u></i></blockquote>
</blockquote>
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As Pottier became exiled in New York following the aftermath of the Paris Commune he translated it into English:</div>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
</blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>Arise, ye workers from your slumber,</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>Arise, ye prisoners of want.</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>For reason in revolt now thunders,</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>and at last ends the age of cant!</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>Away with all your superstitions,</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>Servile masses, arise, arise!</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>We'll change henceforth the old tradition,</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>And spurn the dust to win the prize!</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i><u>Chorus</u></i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>So comrades, come rally,</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>And the last fight let us face.</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>The Internationale</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>Unites the human race.</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i> </i><i>No more deluded by reaction,</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>On tyrants only we'll make war!</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>The soldiers too will take strike action,</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>They'll break ranks and fight no more!</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>And if those cannibals keep trying,</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>To sacrifice us to their pride,</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>They soon shall hear the bullets flying,</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>We'll shoot the generals on our own side.</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i><u>Chorus</u></i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>No saviour from on high delivers,</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>No faith have we in prince or peer.</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>Our own right hand the chains must shiver,</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>Chains of hatred, greed and fear.</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>E'er the thieves will out with their booty,</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>And to all give a happier lot.</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>Each at his forge must do their duty,</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>And we'll strike the iron while it's hot.</i></blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
<i><u>Chorus</u></i></blockquote>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The tune we now sing <i>L'Internationale </i>to now was not the original tune. Instead, it was originally sang to the tune of the famous anthem of the French Revolution, <i>La Marseillaise</i>. Even after <i>L'Internationale </i>became popular, <i>La Marseillaise </i>was still sung - in his account of the Russian Revolution Leon Trotsky argued that Russian workers sang both. In 1888 Belgian socialist Pierre De Geyter changed the tune to the one we now know, although the lateness of his evolution of the song would explain why Russian workers sang both songs. Russia's isolation likely meant that De Geyter's update was not widely known by the time of the outbreak of revolution in 1905 and 1917. </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDPuojpc4MvF9cM3f8NC4dLZbNUndPx-caqmbeApXl9q3a9JR-2bt7KlRTHynUY3hhFcui0OOnorE5SfPFGof9YrokaxLarpNg1C71lWgSJeygEVI6EUSnSbfs4djTZLIRGaihPoft1Kqo/s1600/330px-Pierre_De_Geyter_componist_van_de_Internationale.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="462" data-original-width="330" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDPuojpc4MvF9cM3f8NC4dLZbNUndPx-caqmbeApXl9q3a9JR-2bt7KlRTHynUY3hhFcui0OOnorE5SfPFGof9YrokaxLarpNg1C71lWgSJeygEVI6EUSnSbfs4djTZLIRGaihPoft1Kqo/s320/330px-Pierre_De_Geyter_componist_van_de_Internationale.png" width="228" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Pierre De Geyter</td></tr>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><i>L'Internationale </i>becomes International</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
After De Geyter updated the tune, and thanks to the arrival of an internationalist anarchist and Marxist labour movement, allowed the lyrics to become international. The United States got its own lyrics by Charles Hope Kerr, which became the established lyrics in the USA thanks to its inclusion into the <i>Little Red Book </i>released by the Industrial Workers of the World. In 1902 Arkady Kots made the first Russian translation, in 1910 Emil Luckhardt made the first German translation, 1923 Qu Qiubai made the first Mandarin translation, and during the last decades of British rule in India until the 1950s it was translated into Bengali, Malayalam, Assamese, and Urdu. Although new translations were also made for various reasons. To celebrate the fifty-fifth anniversary of the Paris Commune leftists in the Koumintang's army made a new Mandarin translation in 1926, and to honour the first decade of Maoist rule in China Shen Baoji made a third translation. Billy Bragg in 1989 controversially made a new English version, the one shown at the top of this post, as he thought the lyrics required updating - something other socialists like left-wing Labour politician Tony Benn disagreed with. Bragg's version still remains controversial as it does flow much better, but the lyrics are much less explicitly socialist compared to the original or Kerr's version. </div>
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<iframe width="320" height="266" class="YOUTUBE-iframe-video" data-thumbnail-src="https://i.ytimg.com/vi/zoPM9d18e9o/0.jpg" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/zoPM9d18e9o?feature=player_embedded" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe></div>
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<i>One of Jiang Qing's operas</i></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i>L'Internationale </i>has had a long and varied history on the Left. Until 1944 it was the national anthem of the Soviet Union when it was replaced by the <i>Hymn of the Soviet Union</i>, possibly as Stalin hoped to use the hymn to further bolster his image. While states have tried to co-opt <i>L'Internationale </i>the masses used it themselves. During the Cultural Revolution in China the state played the song on the radio, but tried to silence it when the Red Guards and communes began using the song themselves. One of the key figures in the radical Shanghai Commune, Jiang Qing, regularly used the song in her operas which would be banned by the counter-revolutionary government under Deng Xiaoping which emerged in the post-Mao era. Similarly, the anti-state, but still left-wing, protesters during the 1953 Berlin Uprising, 1968 Prague Spring, and 1989 protests in China and East Germany all used the song. By using it they wished to show their own radicalism, and also protest the state claiming to be radical. Even now, the song remains a key protest song, and represents the long history of leftist internationalism, something deeply needed in a growing climate of intolerance.</div>
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Thank you for reading, and for other Left-Wing and the 'Other' history posts please see our list <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/p/left-wing-and-other-history.html">here</a>. For other blog updates please see our <a href="https://www.facebook.com/TwibyHistoryGeekStuff/">Facebook</a> or catch me on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/lewistwiby?lang=en">@LewisTwiby</a>.</div>
Lewis Twibyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03565517444017278980noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6707020941988899278.post-91407098758833084102020-02-23T07:41:00.001-08:002020-02-23T07:41:24.963-08:00Paleo Profiles: Tiktaalik<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjjtURBkxd2naGgJnZ1oBx0hHuzyrn9RGDYoc0pzW_gbdJV_Oqf6F-NAFo0ZdWgaEIfRaiXpUjWefxKIV_mye1m6D5-NgL57t83mGMM0GSX7zyFSuz9wtmzFJwu6aSAfgTn8aUdaBvtQ9Hx/s1600/75377.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1067" data-original-width="1600" height="213" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjjtURBkxd2naGgJnZ1oBx0hHuzyrn9RGDYoc0pzW_gbdJV_Oqf6F-NAFo0ZdWgaEIfRaiXpUjWefxKIV_mye1m6D5-NgL57t83mGMM0GSX7zyFSuz9wtmzFJwu6aSAfgTn8aUdaBvtQ9Hx/s320/75377.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A reconstruction and skull, from <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/1/140113-tiktaalik-pelvis-fossil-discovery-science/">National Geographic</a></td></tr>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
It is rare in palaeontology that transitional fossils are found - these are the fossils which show how organisms evolve over time. Among some of the famous ones include the <i>Archaeopteryx</i>, which showed how dinosaurs evolved into birds, and <i>Darwinius</i>, which helped show where apes branched off from lemurs. For a long time scientists have known that there must be transitional animals between fish and amphibians, but the question was what would they look like? Then, in 2004, one transitional fossil was found: <i>Tiktaalik</i>. </div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Discovery and Fossils</b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZAsIBfTZ1qy2jOwYHJ-IbxeqGTAOeW7GfJ9JMjPDpp14HR_rRDqWx-cwsr-Ca7Jkewir4_uMoC1wlzaSxdY18GIK7Wvl9InvbhGavoZsZ4N2FNoh2v85tjXpMmlkR8dvVPv0ipkn5i71Q/s1600/Tiktaalik_skull_front.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="399" data-original-width="450" height="283" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZAsIBfTZ1qy2jOwYHJ-IbxeqGTAOeW7GfJ9JMjPDpp14HR_rRDqWx-cwsr-Ca7Jkewir4_uMoC1wlzaSxdY18GIK7Wvl9InvbhGavoZsZ4N2FNoh2v85tjXpMmlkR8dvVPv0ipkn5i71Q/s320/Tiktaalik_skull_front.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<i>Tiktaalik </i>was first discovered in 2004 way in the frozen north of Canada on Ellesmere Island. Modern day Ellesmere Island is not a place you would imagine to find a transitional fish fossil - the geomagnetic north pole can be found on the island. However, a group of palaeontologists discovered this important fossil and fully described it in 2006. This group, (comprising of Neil Shubin, Edward Daeschler, and Farish Jenkins), named it <i>Tiktaalik roseae</i>; <i>Tiktaalik </i>comes from an Inuktitut word roughly meaning 'large freshwater fish', and was actually suggested by elders from the local Inuit Council, and <i>roseae </i>was chosen to honour an anonymous donor. After the initial discovery this alerted palaeontologists to the importance of Ellesmere Island, and successive digs have found other <i>Tiktaalik </i>remains allowing this strange animal to be better understood.</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Biology</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
This animal has been described as a mixture of a salamander and a fish. Although gills do not fossilise the bony structures which support them do, and on the crocodile-like head of the <i>Tiktaalik </i>they took the form of holes called 'spiracles'. This gives us the indication that it could live underwater, but the layout of the ribs, and a secondary use of the spiracles, gives an indication that it also had lungs. Fish have a swim bladder which is full of air to keep them buoyant, but these swim bladders can evolve to become larger becoming a lung over millions of years. Modern day lungfish have this adaptation - they can exist a long time out of water thanks to their swim bladders evolving to become more like a lung which land vertebrates (tetrapods) have. <i>Tiktaalik </i>could then go on land and the water, and its fins helped it do so. Unlike the fish we know today fish of the Devonian, when <i>Tiktaalik </i>lived, had bones in their fins which form a 'hand' you might see in modern whales or the mosasaurs. These were the lobe-finned fish, today there are only eight species of them - the two coelacanths and the eight lungfish species.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiS-at5wdmaK0igWp40J7OPRzfW7YsrvNHnlz4lZ2WThTG5jyqUcyfRA0Zv-kR-oK_rh9IoCNWdImDwpaKh8h4GGzTslZzdJx5EcNsLVg1U8et3CO3t1ZBSAN5yMsMra891n1v8tqvgwosy/s1600/Latimeria_chalumnae.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="560" data-original-width="1600" height="112" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiS-at5wdmaK0igWp40J7OPRzfW7YsrvNHnlz4lZ2WThTG5jyqUcyfRA0Zv-kR-oK_rh9IoCNWdImDwpaKh8h4GGzTslZzdJx5EcNsLVg1U8et3CO3t1ZBSAN5yMsMra891n1v8tqvgwosy/s320/Latimeria_chalumnae.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A West Indian coelacanth</td></tr>
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These lobe-fins will help answer why the <i>Tiktaalik </i>could move onto land. Later fossil finds have managed to unveil the fish's pelvis and tail, unlike its other fish cousins <i>Tiktaalik </i>had a larger pelvis and tail allowing greater movement. This allowed it to move onto land, but the pelvis was not too strong, so it was largely confined to the water side. Shubin, Daeschler, and Jenkins have advocated for a 'front wheel drive hypothesis' - like modern mudskippers it would use its front fins as a way to prop itself up while on land. The ribs were strong for this reason as it required thicker ribs to support its organs outside of the water. Finally, we have the neck. The spiracles allowed <i>Tiktaalik </i>to lose the bony structure which normally protected the gills, so this gave the <i>Tiktaalik </i>a neck with the ability to look around without completely moving its entire body. Although primitive, <i>Tiktaalik </i>and similar animals, one similar fish can also be found in Poland, set the stage for the body plans of amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. This could be used as a way for it to search for prey, or possibly spot predators. At a metre long it was sizeable but was dwarfed by other fish as seen below.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzD1Ir23Sr651CVO1qBTB0puibJ4vpoeMJqiFp5XFn7XoUyzQ1DbiPTYVYo7mmwg1IuMoo4wwaKDOQgQqn7xDjOt8uq1YIIjiqM9wSXVcEbC1ydqOoErB0KjVxAvWU6-QZHKkULweKJA4f/s1600/Ceratodus-Chinlea-Dipnorhynchus-Dipterus-Eusthenopteron-Gooloogongia-Griphognathus-Gyroptychius-Holoptychius-Hyneria-Macropoma-Mandageria-Osteolepis-Panderichthys-Rhizodus-Strunius-tiktaalik-size.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="464" data-original-width="615" height="241" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzD1Ir23Sr651CVO1qBTB0puibJ4vpoeMJqiFp5XFn7XoUyzQ1DbiPTYVYo7mmwg1IuMoo4wwaKDOQgQqn7xDjOt8uq1YIIjiqM9wSXVcEbC1ydqOoErB0KjVxAvWU6-QZHKkULweKJA4f/s320/Ceratodus-Chinlea-Dipnorhynchus-Dipterus-Eusthenopteron-Gooloogongia-Griphognathus-Gyroptychius-Holoptychius-Hyneria-Macropoma-Mandageria-Osteolepis-Panderichthys-Rhizodus-Strunius-tiktaalik-size.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A seize chart from Prehistoric-Wildlife.com</td></tr>
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<b>When and Where</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6krFF_YmfwsAWf9cNyr7adEbBuNm1plLMFnrmv5uMglAQ_OfVQ8jd9oXouhGH954-2WM0WhiM6XN1jr_E2ZvDwzVHJEF5GKv1mdnIRwTcJQnl7KFaMtXT0tk75VOj_BgBzlNwQ0YIB3UT/s1600/River_Beauty.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="292" data-original-width="390" height="239" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6krFF_YmfwsAWf9cNyr7adEbBuNm1plLMFnrmv5uMglAQ_OfVQ8jd9oXouhGH954-2WM0WhiM6XN1jr_E2ZvDwzVHJEF5GKv1mdnIRwTcJQnl7KFaMtXT0tk75VOj_BgBzlNwQ0YIB3UT/s320/River_Beauty.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ellesmere Island today</td></tr>
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As we've already mentioned, <i>Tiktaalik </i>has so far only been found on Ellesmere Island in the very north of Canada. The North East of North America is well known for Devonian lobe-finned fish and the first amphibians. In Quebec there is the closely related <i>Eusthenapteron</i>, which possibly was an ancestor to <i>Tiktaalik</i>, in Pennsylvania there was the giant lobe-finned fish <i>Hyneria </i>and the salamander-like <i>Hynerpeton</i>, and in Greenland there was a possible descendant of <i>Tiktaalik</i>, another salamander-like amphibian called <i>Icthyostega</i>. <i>Tiktaalik </i>has currently been found from fossil sites dating to 375 million years ago during the Devonian period. During this time the first large plants grew on the land, and invertebrates had already conquered the land. The Devonian has been known as 'The Age of the Fishes' for the explosion in the diversity of fish: sharks became common, there were the lobe-finned fish, and armoured fish called placoderms. Oxygen was also a lot less compared to present-day air - possibly around 75% less than today. This possibly explains why <i>Tiktaalik </i>moved onto land. The diversity of plants on the land would die, get washed into the ocean, and start decomposing which increasingly stripped the oceans of oxygen. As a result, any fish which could breathe on land and in water had an advantage. <i>Eusthenopteron </i>had spiracles on the top of its head instead of on the side of its head like other fish (even today), so it could go to the surface and breathe. Consequently, <i>Tiktaalik </i>evolved from lobe-finned fish like <i>Eusthenopteron </i>to take advantage of this.</div>
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<b>Habitat</b></div>
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While it could go on land, the <i>Tiktaalik </i>was still very dependent on the water to survive. If you travelled back 375 million years to spot a <i>Tiktaalik </i>you would have to search riverbeds. Shubin and Daeschler have theorised that it would live in the first swamps, as well as streams and ponds, resting on edge of the water. Most of its time would be spent in the water - quite possibly it would be an ambush predator. Like crocodiles, it would lay on the water's surface, or the riverbed, waiting for prey, and then lunge with its powerful tail and pelvis after an unfortunate fish or bug. As other, larger fish were constrained to the water <i>Tiktaalik </i>would have gone to the shore as a way of effortlessly hiding from them. This fish's ancestors, such as <i>Icthyostega</i>, would start evolving to be more and more on land until the Carboniferous period when the first reptiles would permanently leave the water.</div>
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The sources I have used are as follows:</div>
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-'Tiktaalik', <i><a href="http://www.prehistoric-wildlife.com/species/t/tiktaalik.html">Prehistoric-Wildlife.com</a>, </i>[Accessed 20/02/2020]</div>
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-Dan Vergano, 'Our Fishy Ancestors Had Fins made for Walking', <i>National Geographic</i>, (14/01/2014), [Accessed 20/02/2020]</div>
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-Jason P. Downs, Edward B. Daeschler, Farish A. Jenkins, Jr. and Neil H. Shubin, 'The Cranial Endoskeleton of <i>Tiktaalik roseae</i>', <i>Nature</i>, 455/7215, (2008)</div>
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-Jennifer Clack, 'The Fish-Tetrapod Transition: New Fossils and Interpretations', <i>Evolution: Education and Outreach</i>, 2, (2009), 213-223</div>
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-Neil Shubin, <i>Your Inner Fish: A Journey Into the 3.5-Billion-Year History of the Human Body</i>, (New York: 2008)</div>
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-Neil H. Shubin, Edward B. Daeschler, and Farish A. Jenkins Jr, 'Pelvic girdle and fin of <i>Tiktaalik roseae</i>', <i>PNAS</i>, 111:3, (2014), 893-899</div>
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-PBS Eons, 'When Fish First Breathed Air', <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E1h4kgt2520" style="font-style: italic;">YouTube.com</a>, (19/06/2018), [Accessed 20/02/2020]</div>
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Thank you for reading, for our other Paleo Profiles we have a list <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/p/paleo-profiles.html">here</a>. For other blog updates please see our <a href="https://www.facebook.com/TwibyHistoryGeekStuff/">Facebook</a> or catch me on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/lewistwiby?lang=en">@LewisTwiby</a>.</div>
Lewis Twibyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03565517444017278980noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6707020941988899278.post-1530264188258667512020-02-16T08:50:00.002-08:002020-02-16T08:50:59.468-08:00World History: Australia and New Zealand<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgeNxLMsojrwPoWwwnnPkjmLruWdwm7U-6sNQx-67FtfPbPynw4CxBZqbvKp_xFhVQt-VJ8ruFEhVsr4CrJUSIqE49G9KSqkGuZ9HTfvmrPdJK7AwDxqnlEcKPZomPa7VwOY65iczC6ngGq/s1600/cms-diggers.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="254" data-original-width="444" height="183" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgeNxLMsojrwPoWwwnnPkjmLruWdwm7U-6sNQx-67FtfPbPynw4CxBZqbvKp_xFhVQt-VJ8ruFEhVsr4CrJUSIqE49G9KSqkGuZ9HTfvmrPdJK7AwDxqnlEcKPZomPa7VwOY65iczC6ngGq/s320/cms-diggers.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Australian Gold Diggers</td></tr>
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Throughout the nineteenth century, and last time when we looked at <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2019/06/world-history-colonialism-and.html">colonialism</a>, new forms of states emerged, including the new settler colonies of Aotearoa/New Zealand and Australia. Coming after the older settler colonies in the Americas new settler colonies emerged in Oceania, and Kenya and Zimbabwe. Despite being colonised by Britain around the same time we will see the major differences which emerged in these colonies. This occurred through various reasons ranging from geography to the conditions of the pre-colonial regions. A hint at a possible World History 2 I aim to look at these pre-colonial societies, but that is another discussion for a long time in the future. Instead we'll go over a basic summary here.</div>
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<b>Australia and Aotearoa before Europe</b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi22fYMOqnC-_y6uCWmFnOUhVDHLGXG3LpjahjvgG0T3GpbxFF2LYQdJcPIW8_1-OS8GR9MLGiD-eLmq35KQGbuv26mPkQNJcMkbRZI3dnFIRGzbvdtt_NeEW6QmozbE9ycOC3wOgOKbpnk/s1600/Bradshaw_rock_paintings.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="683" data-original-width="1024" height="213" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi22fYMOqnC-_y6uCWmFnOUhVDHLGXG3LpjahjvgG0T3GpbxFF2LYQdJcPIW8_1-OS8GR9MLGiD-eLmq35KQGbuv26mPkQNJcMkbRZI3dnFIRGzbvdtt_NeEW6QmozbE9ycOC3wOgOKbpnk/s320/Bradshaw_rock_paintings.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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The landmass which we now call Australia has been inhabited by people for over 30,000 years, and possibly as far back as 65,000 years - we discussed this all the way back in my first year of university with our first World History <a href="http://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2015/12/world-history-introduction-and-human.html">post</a>. The site of Lake Mungo, from around 40,000 years ago, exhibits burials and some of the oldest cremations indicating that prehistoric indigenous Australians had by then developed religious rituals. It is difficult to write a history of pre-colonial Aboriginal Australians in just this short section, as it is impossible to understand the complexity and diversity of life over such a large period of time, and over a geographic area. There are over 900 ethnic groups, and just before European colonisation they were organised in over 250 'nations', which were then divided into smaller and localised units, speaking over 250 languages. Unfortunately, through genocide only 50 of these languages remain. Through oral tradition, and outdated ethnographies, we can piece together life and culture just before European colonisation - Nancy Williams and Lesley Jolly have discussed how Arrernte men and women lived in 'separate but intersecting spheres' of activity.</div>
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Meanwhile, it is easier to understand the pre-colonial history of Aotearoa/New Zealand. For one, Aotearoa is the Maori name for New Zealand, and in this post I will refer to the islands as 'Aotearoa' until European colonisation became 'complete' which is when that I'll switch to 'New Zealand'. Despite theories that alleged that before the Maori there were Egyptian, Indo-Aryans, Celtic, or Phoenician colonisation of Aotearoa, it was Polynesians (the ancestors of the Maori) who first settled on the islands. Aotearoa is one of the most isolated regions in the world, so it would make sense that the Polynesian linguistic group - who are one of the most geographically diverse peoples - were the ones to settle there. Unlike Australia, having tens of thousands of years of inhabitation, the first people to permanently settle on Aotearoa only arrived in the thirteenth century. As a result, Maori and Moriori religion, language, and culture contains similarities with other Polynesian groups. Due to the recent nature of their settlement, and the smaller geographic area, the indigenous peoples of Aotearoa have a more homogenous set of beliefs and cultures compared to Australian Aboriginals. Society was organised into various competing networks of alliances or rivalries called <i>iwi</i>, and this was further divided into a smaller, intimate unit called <i>hapu</i>. Of course, these models were often changing and various events could change the structure of the <i>iwi </i>and <i>hapu</i>. There was a further hierarchical system among these units with the <i>rangatira </i>(often seen as aristocrats) and <i>tutua </i>(commoners). <i>Rangatira </i>based their prestige on <i>mana </i>- power and influence which derived from your genealogy and your physical resources.</div>
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<b>Contact and Invasion</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgM2Wf_WO06vHwCOBYtGLwi2FydyVs3whbtZNXn4gdi4dORG14QvlvgFlmJtq8MrA5uuP154DP9oWHo2iO4xoJzQYFP4T16Bt0nPw_E2N7QdjNv37cQZ3B0_2FXEB7NeQ9G5WRvZoaEOHvr/s1600/_methode_times_prod_web_bin_efadbb3c-f687-11e5-9bc2-3c65474038ca.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="663" data-original-width="1180" height="179" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgM2Wf_WO06vHwCOBYtGLwi2FydyVs3whbtZNXn4gdi4dORG14QvlvgFlmJtq8MrA5uuP154DP9oWHo2iO4xoJzQYFP4T16Bt0nPw_E2N7QdjNv37cQZ3B0_2FXEB7NeQ9G5WRvZoaEOHvr/s320/_methode_times_prod_web_bin_efadbb3c-f687-11e5-9bc2-3c65474038ca.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A depiction of Captain Cook</td></tr>
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It should be noted that Australian Aboriginals, Maori, and Moriori did not live in 'isolation' from the rest of the world - after initial settlement of Aotearoa there were other waves of settlement, and Aboriginals in the north traded for centuries with the Makassans in modern Indonesia. In fact, through this trade some Aboriginal groups had access to European goods before they even made 'contact' with Europeans! Oceania became known to Europe during the so-called 'Age of Discovery' - which you can read about <a href="http://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2017/07/world-history-age-of-exploration.html">here</a> - but its existence had been theorised for centuries. Since the time of the ancient Greeks a <i>Terra Australis Incognito </i>(Unknown Land of the South) had been theorised, and in the 1540s 'Java La Grande' first appeared on French maps. While Portugal was likely the first European state to spot Australia, it was the Dutch who first landed in 1616 when Dirk Hartog arrived by accident. The Dutch would continue mapping the region, eventually calling it New Holland, and in 1642 Dutch East Indian Company governor-general Anthoine Van Diemen got Abel Tasman to map a route to the Spanish colonies in Latin America. During this time he mapped what is now Tasmania and eventually Aotearoa. These islands got their name from the explorations - Tasmania came from Tasman, but it was originally called Van Diemen's Land, and New Zealand is named after Zeeland in the Netherlands. No settlements were formed until the voyages of Captain James Cook in the late-1700s. Originally sent to help improve navigation, and using Venus as his guide to do so, his ship, the <i>Endeavour</i>, travelled across the Pacific - from Tahiti to Australia to Aotearoa to Hawai'i. Motivated by both capital accumulation and Enlightenment scientific inquiry Cook carefully documented and even met the inhabitants of the places he explored using Tahtian aid. His description of Aboriginals is loaded with the stereotypical 'Noble Savage' tropes, saying they were in 'a pure state of nature', but he does acknowledge that they had adapted to a land where European-style farming could not exist. This was in Botany Bay, an area which Cook would call initially Stingray Bay because of its stingrays. While some encounters were peaceful, others were not. At Botany Bay Aboriginals tried to scare them off, and Cook himself would later get into a fight with Hawaiians leading to his death on Valentine's Day in 1779.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWZ7pUw-xKMT8zJQsF9EjZl9krR5JbEpQTfIFMKnuXJhQ4xmH1vwvfIUOOtWN53AezUNNfgjNfN-aLGI1WrG6kCcnJ_ev8fWaPJQKGnCUvijP67rMXSB9W-8bLJtDp9Xcsqt-n5vJs3SO0/s1600/first_fleet-1160x653.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="653" data-original-width="1160" height="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWZ7pUw-xKMT8zJQsF9EjZl9krR5JbEpQTfIFMKnuXJhQ4xmH1vwvfIUOOtWN53AezUNNfgjNfN-aLGI1WrG6kCcnJ_ev8fWaPJQKGnCUvijP67rMXSB9W-8bLJtDp9Xcsqt-n5vJs3SO0/s320/first_fleet-1160x653.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A depiction of the First Fleet</td></tr>
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Thanks to the cartographic mapping and diaries left by Cook and other explorers Britain started to have the Pacific in mind. Why Australia, then renamed New South Wales, was first chosen for colonisation is still up for debate. The first answer is obvious - penal colonies. Britain had been using the Americas as penal colonies, but the American Revolution had closed that off so they needed a new place for prisoners. However, only a third of the population of the 'First Fleet' which ended up founding Sydney were convicts. In 1952 Ken Dallas first challenged this idea and the debate continues to rage on. He, and later historians, argued that although Botany Bay was always intended as a penal colony, it was not the only, or possibly even primary, reason. The creation of Sydney could open a way to challenge the Spanish and French, as well as economic ventures. When the First Fleet was dropped off the ships made their way to Indonesia and China hoping to trade, and the Second Fleet were converted into whaling ships. Regardless, on 18 January 1788, now known as Australia Day or Invasion Day, the First Fleet arrived at Botany Bay with naval officer Arthur Phillip as the first governor of the new colony. There was an issue for the new settlers. Despite being rich in life the climate was not good for European style farming, and the fact that people already lived there, so other colonies were made to supply goods to the newly emerging Sydney. Timber was especially needed, something plentiful in Aotearoa, so Phillips ordered it to be collected from Aotearoa. This would pave the way for the colonisation of Aotearoa. The first settlers, called Pakeha by the Maori, were actually seamen and convicts escaping despotic captains and poor conditions on ships becoming the 'Pakeha Maori'. It would be sealing, not timber, which would create the first Pakeha settlement in 1792. Constructing European-houses at Dusky Sound in 1792 they returned to Sydney with 4500 seal skins. </div>
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<b>Trade and Conflict along the Frontier</b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgCDo4r37Qa7Thd6mWIukkNkYncriR6gj3QuWnVu5RbhdKhMM2tJWjeGeoep9lEf1dAb3DSP2kaNZt41Obfjb902s79TdST9C35J4pYHtVAgTr9tt6hQG72m5-go5pgmMMTUZOt0i-LVHWh/s1600/hero-45208.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="280" data-original-width="640" height="140" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgCDo4r37Qa7Thd6mWIukkNkYncriR6gj3QuWnVu5RbhdKhMM2tJWjeGeoep9lEf1dAb3DSP2kaNZt41Obfjb902s79TdST9C35J4pYHtVAgTr9tt6hQG72m5-go5pgmMMTUZOt0i-LVHWh/s320/hero-45208.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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In both Australia and Aotearoa initial contacts between settlers and indigenous peoples can be considered a mixture of cooperation and conflict. As was the case with all the other European empires, the settlers were initially reliant on the local peoples - for trade and so they wouldn't attack them. In 1828, for example, one entrepreneur called John Rodolphus Kent married Tiria, the daughter of the first 'Maori King' and chief Te Wherowhero, to secure access to resources and labour. Not mentioned till now was the devastating impact disease had on both Maori and Aboriginal populations - smallpox especially wiped out many communities. Christian missions were opened in both colonies to convert the local peoples, and also to make sure the settlers did not sin too much. This had a devastating impact on indigenous culture as Christianity was forced onto them. From religion to identity was changed by colonial evangelising - the Maori had a third gender concept called <i>wakawahine</i> which missionaries tried to cast as sinful and to be cast out. Most famously, however, guns and potatoes were traded to the Maori which revolutionised their society. Potato, being such an easy to grow crop, became a staple in their diet, but muskets radicalised warfare. The Musket Wars waged from 1807 to 1837 in something which Michael King describes as a time of 'Guns and God'. As muskets gave <i>iwi </i>an advantage over their opponents this caused a boom in trade as Pakeha exploited the growing need for <i>iwi </i>to defend themselves. A genocide also occurred. The Moriori on Chatham Island had long abandoned violence; when Europeans had shot one the community blamed themselves showing this aversion to violence. Due to displacement caused by the Musket Wars the Ngati Mutunga and Ngati Tama invaded in 1835 and commit a genocide. Many Moriori were killed, the rest were enslaved, their language forbidden, and holy sites destroyed. From around 2,000 individuals in 1835 by the time they were freed only around 101 remained. </div>
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Meanwhile, similar actions were taking place in Australia. The initial years were hard due to the land - while it created allowed for a diversity of life it was not suited for European style farming. In a standard ironic twist in history Governor Phillips viewed the Aboriginals as being squatters on the land with no actual ties to it, but the land which proved to be most fertile happened to be the areas which had seen Aboriginal farming techniques being used. Instead, animal farming was more prosperous - within fifteen years the sheep population rose from 29 to 20,000. Experiments in selective breeding allowed sheep and cattle to become adapted to the Australian climate, and soon enough Australia became known for its lamb and beef. Landowners started emerging due to close connections with the governor, 'British democracy' did not exist in Australia for many decades to come. Close allies to governors allowed them to have large holdings, with over 80,000 acres, which opened the door for them to prosper through pastoralism. Not only did this push out smaller farmers it also created conflict with Aboriginal peoples. Not only around Sydney - other settlements started emerging across the eastern half of Australia including Newcastle, Adelaide, and Melbourne. The British government, not wanting to be drawn into costly colonial wars, called for the settlers to not disturb the Aboriginals, but this was easier said than done. For one, Aboriginal communities were not happy that their land was being taken from them - it is widely believed that John Batman's 1835 treaty with the Kulin, which founded Melbourne, was only a 'treaty' as the Kulin did not understand that they were permanently giving up their land. Different concepts of land ownership meant that they thought that they would be sharing the land. It was also not uncommon for settlers to initiate violence in order to move into Aboriginal land. In May 1804 panicking soldiers in Van Diemen's Land shot 40 people on a kangaroo hunt thinking they were a war party. This would be a standard throughout the 1800s.</div>
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<b>Life and Culture in the 'Frontier'</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgRwFuOCslAGBjF3kNS0spbHQ6XigDDOwIDITAgoCk-xynS_v_aJaw8relY-ZxoRaE5du3zE6z6VKhlL0Mbv6ngSY27QpNXTBhhyphenhyphenIIMsa0b_0m1wocPOSBeHBlOVZ2PuqDahWaetrPPSFUi/s1600/431bf6a65f84cfab7ea5e9f6b54ebd59.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="289" data-original-width="530" height="174" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgRwFuOCslAGBjF3kNS0spbHQ6XigDDOwIDITAgoCk-xynS_v_aJaw8relY-ZxoRaE5du3zE6z6VKhlL0Mbv6ngSY27QpNXTBhhyphenhyphenIIMsa0b_0m1wocPOSBeHBlOVZ2PuqDahWaetrPPSFUi/s320/431bf6a65f84cfab7ea5e9f6b54ebd59.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">An Australian bush hut used by settlers</td></tr>
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A wide range of people came to Australia and Aotearoa for various reasons, ranging from convicts to farmers wanting a new life. The farms were ran by forced convict labour, and many of the newly emerging economies relied on convicts. A significant percentage of those on the whaling ships which arrived with the Second Fleet happened to be convicts. Economic pressures meant that many convicts were soon declared free, especially coming towards the 1850s, so they could fully partake in the new economies. As described by David Day, although the land of New South Wales was not fertile, 'the women certainly were'. Of the convicts which arrived with the First Fleet 188 were women, and as they were settler colonies there were no bars on women coming to the colonies. Australia and New Zealand gave women the vote a long time before they did in Europe, and this is a similar trend as seen in the US West. To 'tame' the land women were given a lot more agency compared to those in the metropole which allowed an easier fight for rights. However, there was an expectation to be a model of the virtuous housewife. As argued by Ann Stoler, there was colonial anxiety over white women and non-white men having sex and 'transgressing the colour line'. Transposing their own ideas of gender onto indigenous peoples white men argued that Aboriginal men exploited and made women their slaves. As argued by Mary Anne Jacobs and Anna Haebich, 'White men stole Aboriginal women's labour and sexuality much as they usurped their land and resources.' In rural areas white settlers fathered mixed-race children, whether they accepted their children was another matter. Syphilis became endemic thanks to Europeans introducing the disease. Cultural changes deeply impacted indigenous peoples, colonialism created a cultural genocide as missionary activity tried to enforce Christianity and European culture. Some were caught in the middle. Bennelong was captured by Arthur Philips, used as an interpreter, and even went to Britain. Due to him being indigenous meant that he was rejected by the settlers, while his adoption of European cultural practices made him a pariah among indigenous peoples.</div>
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<b>Colonial Wars </b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiiHLGzxyvXlOFDq4T51eGS-NDRI2xH98t6yEMl08S7dZ431c-kI2NNgqMRB6IntbAGO040UVkMePfSjBtDJ6d6SuTnA3KgeWevn8MIrgdR6l6BOuLzDyVt1BbuMuanSBTc-6z6SJR9kL6-/s1600/200px-HekeFlagstaff.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="274" data-original-width="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiiHLGzxyvXlOFDq4T51eGS-NDRI2xH98t6yEMl08S7dZ431c-kI2NNgqMRB6IntbAGO040UVkMePfSjBtDJ6d6SuTnA3KgeWevn8MIrgdR6l6BOuLzDyVt1BbuMuanSBTc-6z6SJR9kL6-/s1600/200px-HekeFlagstaff.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A depiction of the Flagstaff War</td></tr>
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Land expropriation and clashes meant that wars broke out. In 1840 Pakeha hoped to avoid further conflict with the Maori, but this decision would prove contentious and problematic. The Treaty of Waitangi, written in both English and Maori, was forged between <i>iwi </i>and New South Wales Lieutenant-Governor William Hobson, Aotearoa was then still seen as being part of New South Wales. There were three articles: first, 'Chiefs of the Confederation of the United Tribes of New Zealand...cede to Her Majesty the Queen of England absolutely and without reservation all the rights and powers of Sovereignty...over their respective Territories'; second, guarantees that chiefs and tribes had access to land; and third, that all Maori would become British citizens. There were naturally issues - these words and concepts emerged through British thought which did not map onto Maori thought. For one, sovereignty was translated as <i>kawanatanga</i> which in Maori implied that they still had some form of governorship. Similarly, the translation over land had a wider meaning, this also included cultural resources, not just material. Furthermore, not all <i>iwi </i>accepted the Treaty, and it did not take long for Pakeha to directly ignore it themselves. A 1846 Native Land Purchase Act which tightened government hold over Maori land. From the 1840s to the 1870s was a period known as the 'Maori' or 'New Zealand Wars'. These were a series of wars between Pakeha and their allies, and <i>iwi </i>over the Treaty. One such one, the Flagstaff War, sparked when Maori in 1845 cut down a British flag seeing it as encroaching on their sovereignty. The Maori managed to fight so well, incidentally, because of the British selling them muskets decades earlier - the Musket Wars had changed Maori community structures to better resist attack. However, they could not resist entirely, and by the 1870s the Pakeha had broke the back of the Maori resistance.</div>
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Australia similarly saw a colonial war against Aboriginal peoples. Before we discuss this we need to quickly go over the 'History Wars'. From the 1960s historians started having a look again at colonial Australia, and began writing histories of colonial Australia and the genocidal wars. However, from the 1990s conservative historians, under the guise of objectivity, that 'leftists' were re-writing Australian history. In particular, the 'Black War' was singled out, largely as it has been seen as leading to the near-extinction of the Tasmanians. However, this debate was not about 'objectivity', but really about trying to make Australia's colonial history less drenched in blood. Evidence speaks otherwise. As argued by Lyndall Ryan, the Black War emerged as a way to solidify settler rule by massacring communities. The 'Black Line' was even formed as a way to systematically corner communities - Batman got into his position to form 'Batmania', later Melbourne, through his participation in the Black War. Estimations have put that for every settler killed, five Aboriginals were killed - due to a small population this seemingly drove them to extinction. The 'Frontier Wars' across Australia were not as genocidal as the Black War, but the mixture of violence and disease 'subdued the frontier'.</div>
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<b>Mining and Migration</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjuTWEcLNsO_5A8deR_dnaTfbAacF2jckrDk4c4lQvvBATFTa5wMqXIjbykOJMwY1SJ7ZckWbZwMtzGu9yfDko2O5_Q8PvkjFjRZP_W8Yc-uvnVPjrZm_i2e5DaaWtc8kqy1L4u_pDVWTHN/s1600/William_Strutt_Bushrangers.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="269" data-original-width="560" height="153" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjuTWEcLNsO_5A8deR_dnaTfbAacF2jckrDk4c4lQvvBATFTa5wMqXIjbykOJMwY1SJ7ZckWbZwMtzGu9yfDko2O5_Q8PvkjFjRZP_W8Yc-uvnVPjrZm_i2e5DaaWtc8kqy1L4u_pDVWTHN/s320/William_Strutt_Bushrangers.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Bushrangers</td></tr>
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The economies of Australia and New Zealand stagnated until the discovery of gold and minerals in the 1850s. Thus started the Australian and Otago Gold Rush. A big reason why the Maori Wars took place was due to the discovery of gold in Maori lands. Suddenly, Australia, in particular, went from a farming colony to an industrial one. Emigration to Australia rose from 20,000 a year to 90,000 a year in just a year! People came from Britain, Germany, the US, and China looking to make a fortune in the new gold mines, and the mine owners replaced the landowners as the wealthiest in society. The gold mines, naturally, were far from the cities, and with colonial power weaker there it allowed crime to proliferate. Missionaries decried the 'depravity' of the mining settlements where prostitution, alcoholism, and violence seemed to rule. In reality, each community formed their own structures and cooperated with each other, but with it being excluded from traditional power structures, and what it looked like, it was demonised. That does not mean that crime did not exist. Weak crime enforcement allowed the rise of the 'bushrangers'. Why mine when you can just steal the profits others made? While demonised at the time, in later years they became a point of pride for Australian national identity. Ned Kelly became the most famous for his raids and wearing of metal, knight-like armour earned him fame, and his execution in 1880 led him to become a folk hero like Billy the Kid. The bushrangers eventually vanished when the periphery of the nation became closer to the metropole. Cities expanded and to create a congruent nation railways and telegraphs made Australia more connected. This allowed both Australia and New Zealand to start developing their own identities.</div>
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<b>The Rise of Democracy and National Identity</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5G3gN0Z_Xhdsn0kAs29q4m1Vvf7ZF_LRzTh-yahDuzF86HcmspYiA6zkmWa6snvWxU_8NPI8pjpeftWAQrTAC6nZDLy3wFx09OI3MHNlGvFNqc13sUEi3z2N8jzoWon3XLVRGU2RovgUK/s1600/unnamed.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="289" data-original-width="400" height="231" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5G3gN0Z_Xhdsn0kAs29q4m1Vvf7ZF_LRzTh-yahDuzF86HcmspYiA6zkmWa6snvWxU_8NPI8pjpeftWAQrTAC6nZDLy3wFx09OI3MHNlGvFNqc13sUEi3z2N8jzoWon3XLVRGU2RovgUK/s320/unnamed.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A depiction of the Eureka Rebellion</td></tr>
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Australia and New Zealand have become famous for more progressive politics, for years Australia has been known as 'the Working Man's Nation'. This was largely thanks to the industrialisation and migration. Britain was still sending convicts well into the late-nineteenth century, including many political radicals. Similarly, European and American migrants brought new ideas like socialism and liberalism to the colonies very quickly. A spark for Australian democracy emerged in the gold mines with the 1854 Eureka Rebellion. Wanting a more democratic nation with workers' rights miners took control of the fields of Eureka, and, despite it being crushed, it proved to be a radical alternative for Australians. Mark Twain in 1890 described it as one of the most important events in the history of the colony, and left-wing activists even suggested using the Eureka flag flown by the rebels as an alternate flag of Australia. It is unsurprising that feminist and trade union movements quickly emerged in this context, and at times they were the same movement. In the early-1900s women engaged in unions in order to pressure the government into bringing equal pay for women. In 1884 Henrietta Dugdale formed the first suffrage society, and in 1897 the 'Grandmother of Australia' Catherine Helen Spence became the first woman to run for parliament. </div>
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This surge in political activity allowed the two colonies to move towards becoming quasi-independent from Britain. How they would look as dominions was an alternate question. Originally, it was decided that they would form one big state, Australia's constitution still claims New Zealand showing this. Although New Zealand is as close to Sydney as Sydney is to Western Australia to divide by sea made them appear as two very separate states - while Western Australia reluctantly became part of the Federation of Australia, New Zealand solidly held fast. Instead New Zealand tried to build on different aspects to differentiate itself from Australia - ironically using its indigenous populace. The Treaty of Waitangi and Maori resistance to complete cultural domination gave New Zealand a false sense that it treats its native populace well. It is true that Australia had certainly treated its indigenous peoples badly - the looting of Aboriginal art and boom in anthropological accounts about them in the 1890s occurred as there was a belief that Aboriginals would soon go extinct. Furthermore, shortly after independence Australia began the 'Lost Generation' where Aboriginal children were taken from their families and placed into schools to 'civilise' them, a destructive policy which lasted well into the 1900s and solidified a cultural genocide. This gave New Zealand an easy difference to exaggerate - becoming part of the Australian Federation would infringe the rights of Maori. A cartoon from 1900 in the <i>New Zealand Graphic </i>shows a personified New Zealand, hand-in-hand with a Maori, rejecting the Australian ogre with its arms in chains, a likely reference to the convict past which could 'stain' New Zealand. However, both states positioned themselves as being 'white'. With the exception of the IWW, which emerged from anarco-syndicalist politics, trade unions were horrifically racist, and shortly after independence Australia passed the 'White Australia Policy' barring emigration from Asia and Melanesia. </div>
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<b>Conclusion</b></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">New Zealand and Australian troops at Gallipoli</td></tr>
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As we have seen New Zealand and Australia had very similar but also very different histories. Through the legacies of settler colonialism and working-class agitation the modern states which we now know emerged. However, upon independence in 1901 (Australia) and 1907 (New Zealand) there were still debates about what they would look like; merging the two colonies was still not an unlikely scenario. Although a radical movement wanted to bring about a republic there was still an urge to remain part of the British Empire - both states immediately jumped into the First World War. As we will soon see it was this war which firmly set out their own national identity. The baptism of fire at Gallipoli would firmly set out their own identities. These shifts we have discussed today would shape the two countries up until now, and likely will continue to do so.</div>
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The sources I have used are as follows:</div>
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-Michael King, <i>The Penguin History of New Zealand</i>, (London: 2003)</div>
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-David Day, <i>Claiming a Continent: A New History of Australia</i>, (Sydney: 1997)</div>
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-Denis McLean, <i>The Prickly Pair: Making Nationalism in Australia and New Zealand</i>, (Dunedin: 2003)</div>
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-Kay Saunders and Raymond Evans, (eds.), <i>Gender Relations in Australia: Domination and Negotiation</i>, (Sydney: 1992)</div>
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-Eric Hobsbawm, <i>The Age of Capital, 1848-1875</i>, (London: 1975)</div>
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-Vincent O'Malley, Bruce Stirling, and Wally Penetito, (eds.), <i>The Treaty of Waitangi Companion: Maori and Pakeha from Tasman to Today</i>, (Auckland: 2010)</div>
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-Lyndall Ryan, 'Massacre in the Black War in Tasmania 1823-34: A Case Study of the Meander River Region, June 1827', <i>Journal of Genocide Research</i>, 10:4, (2008), 479-499</div>
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Thank you for reading, and next time we will be looking at the First World War. For other World History posts please see our <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/p/world-history.html">list</a>. For other blog posts please see our <a href="https://www.facebook.com/TwibyHistoryGeekStuff/">Facebook</a> or catch me on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/lewistwiby?lang=en">@LewisTwiby</a>.</div>
Lewis Twibyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03565517444017278980noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6707020941988899278.post-34745401446613686392020-02-09T05:00:00.002-08:002020-02-09T05:00:50.670-08:00Comics Explained: Harley Quinn<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglxDi5j1zbYIM7gFwUOyrvlMJuCYAqI91KTwlFsHiOBKRkYEHxCH-g7jo82MjtIFZD__QUy__TICtmJoJs63c6kScV0u-IZWZqN5CER1FB2Ed-5-pGIG70vk8KW9eLpKt0NdlbY4f_UQMy/s1600/Harley_Quinn_0002.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="500" data-original-width="332" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglxDi5j1zbYIM7gFwUOyrvlMJuCYAqI91KTwlFsHiOBKRkYEHxCH-g7jo82MjtIFZD__QUy__TICtmJoJs63c6kScV0u-IZWZqN5CER1FB2Ed-5-pGIG70vk8KW9eLpKt0NdlbY4f_UQMy/s320/Harley_Quinn_0002.jpg" width="212" /></a></div>
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Harley Quinn is by far one of DC's most popular characters despite only debuting in the 1990s. Within that short amount of time she's managed to evolve from a one-off henchmen of the Joker, that didn't actually originate in the comics, to one of the major antiheroes of DC. As she is the star of <i>Birds of Prey </i>movie, as played by the fantastic Margot Robbie, it is the perfect time to discuss her character. We can't go over each of her appearances, in just thirty years she's appeared in DC a lot, so we'll be doing an overview of her instead.</div>
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<b>Creation</b></div>
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Harley Quinn did not actually debut in the comics, instead she debuted on TV. It is not uncommon for characters to emerge outside of comics to become big inside the comics. Mr Freeze, Agent Coulson, X-23, Batgirl, Krypton, and kryptonite all made their debuts outside the comics. Harley Quinn debuted in the critically acclaimed <i>Batman: The Animated Series </i>in the episode 'Joker's Favor' as originally a walk-on role, and she was created by the show-creators Paul Dini and Bruce Timm. After watching Arleen Sorkin in the soap opera <i>Days of Our Lives</i>, and because Dini was friends with Sorkin, they modelled Harley off of Sorkin - she would even voice Harley in the series. The animated series had a spin-off comic in 1994 called <i>The Batman Adventures: Mad Love</i> which more or less has remained her origin story, but it took until 1999 for her to fully debut in the mainstream DC universe. As part of the <i>No Man's Land </i>event - when an earthquake isolates Gotham and the villains carve up the city between them - a tie-in graphic novel was released called <i>Batman: Harley Quinn</i>. This graphic novel mostly kept her origins from the animated series. </div>
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<b>Origins</b></div>
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Her origin story has had some tweaks thanks to the rebooting of the timelines after the <i>Flashpoint </i>event. Born in Brooklyn she had a long interest in criminal psychology, and she was a genius in regards to psychology. In the new timeline, explained in <i>Suicide Squad Vol. 4</i>, her interest was sparked by her teenage boyfriend committing a murder - to signify her interest in criminal psychology she stole a taxidermied beaver from her boyfriend's father. In the original timeline, a jealous professor spiked her boyfriend's drink with diluted Joker Venom sending him insane - not knowing this Harley thought this was due to the same mental problem which the Joker suffered from. As her boyfriend eventually was cured, she was determined to cure the Joker. In both timelines she began studying the Joker, but she did not expect to find how charming he could be. His split personalities allowed him to put on a charming, friendlier facade just for her - she enjoyed the nickname he gave her. As her name was Harleen Quinzel, he called her 'Harly Quinn' from harlequin. However, through all this, the Joker was slowly chipping away at her sanity and through this she fell in love with him. Eventually, she had been broken and secretly started freeing the Joker from his cell. Depending on the timeline she was either committed and later freed by the Joker (the original), or was kidnapped by the Joker and thrown in a chemical vat to replicate how the Joker came into being (the new timeline). Thus, Harley Quinn was born.</div>
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<b>The Joker and Harley</b></div>
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Calling the Joker 'Mister J' or 'Puddin'' Harley became one of the most closest people to the Joker. Just like in the <i>Animated Series </i>it was not a true relationship as Harley envisioned it. Joker's callous nature meant that he regularly toyed with her emotions, and regularly saw her as expendable. In <i>Batman #663</i>, for example, the duo set out to kill all of the Joker's former henchmen, but it turned out that this was a set up for the 'punchline' - killing Harley herself. It was one of the examples of Harley fighting back against the Joker where she shot him in the shoulder in rage for his betrayal. In 2001, she got her own title called <i>Harley Quinn </i>where, tired of the Joker's abuse, she leaves to go on her own. Part of the story, which ran for 38 issues, saw her forming her own gang called the Quintets, although they too would also betray her. Meanwhile, she adopted two spotted hyenas called Bud and Lou, named after Abbott and Costello, and moved in with Poison Ivy. This would spark a long relationship between the two, which also happened in the <i>Animated Series</i>, and recently has blossomed into a romantic relationship. At the end of her series she handed herself into Arkham Asylum realising that she needs help. </div>
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Throughout the 2000s she would have various appearances, some big and some small. For example, in <i>Detective Comics #831 </i>she could have had the chance of parole from Arkham, but she was kidnapped by the new Ventriloquist, Peyton Riley. The Ventriloquist was a gangster who appeared to act under the orders of his puppet Scarface, but he died and Peyton took over the role. Harley didn't want to work for her, especially as she disliked Peyton taking on the Ventriloquist's identity as the original cheered her up in Arkham, and teamed up with Batman to take her down. Eventually, she teamed up with Poison Ivy and Catwoman to form the Gotham Sirens, in the series <i>Gotham City Sirens</i>, where the trio agreed to live and fight together. Among their adventures included fighting the criminal mastermind, and childhood friend of Bruce Wayne, Hush; fighting a Joker impersonator; and Harley opting to spend Christmas with the Sirens after a 'horrible' time with her family. The team almost break up thanks to the events over issues 20 to 25. Wanting revenge for years of torment Harley breaks into Arkham to kill the Joker, but ends up joining with him to take over the asylum. While Catwoman teams up with Batman to defeat them, Poison Ivy attempts to kill the re-incarcerated Harley. Then she has a change of heart, wanting revenge on Catwoman for abandoning them for Batman. In the end Catwoman chose to let them escape instead of getting them arrested.</div>
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<b>New 52 and Rebirth</b></div>
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The post-<i>Flashpoint </i>universe is referred to as the 'New 52', and was generally seen as a new start for DC. In this Harley's origins were slightly altered, but, due to Batman's popularity, most of the pre-<i>Flashpoint </i>timeline was kept intact. Harley was brought into the <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2015/07/comics-explained-suicide-squad.html">Suicide Squad</a> - this was basically a supervillain team used by the government to go on suicide missions. It was part of her new run with <i>Suicide Squad </i>that her best known design comes from. However, the Joker still had an influence of her. When it was rumoured that the Joker was dead, and that his face had been cut off, she broke into the Gotham City Police Department to get the mask - in a particularly dark scene she straps the face onto a tied up Deadshot to have one last 'conversation'. It turned out the Joker was alive, and in <i>Death of the Family </i>he managed to coax her into pretending to be his original moniker of the Red Hood - it was then that she realised that she could never go back to him. In 2013 she get her own comic title again, called <i>Harley Quinn</i>, by Jimmy Palmiotti and Amanda Conner where she developed into an anti-hero, and started formally dating Poison Ivy. This was a well-received series - except for when DC ran the really stupid design competition where they asked fans to <i>draw Harley in suicide scenarios</i>. Naturally many artists and writers, especially Palmiotti and Conner, were infuriated by this. Regardless, the actual stories were well-received, something helped by their eccentric stories. In one, it turns out Harley has a crush on Bruce Wayne and wins a competition to go on a date with him - it quickly turns into a story where she teams up with Batman to fight supervillains. </div>
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In 2016 DC released <i>Rebirth </i>to fix many of the problems caused by the recent rebooting of the universe. In the new <i>Suicide Squad </i>series she has gone to be more of a darker character and refuses to take the title of 'hero', but still has a carefree attitude. She even managed to lead a team of the Suicide Squad which also comprises of Enchantress, Killer Croc, Captain Boomerang, Katana, and Deadshot - it is not coincidence that this was also the roster of the <i>Suicide Squad </i>movie. Despite rejecting the title of a hero, she is still seen as a hero. In 2018 the <i>Heroes in Crisis </i>story revealed that the Justice League has the 'Sanctuary', basically a place where heroes and former villains can undergo therapy. Harley was invited, and one day all the patients were found murdered - only Harley Quinn and Booster Gold, with no memory of the event, were found alive. In a murder mystery, which ended up spanning time itself, Harley helped clear of name of the murders.</div>
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Thank you for reading and I hope you found it interesting. For future blog updates please see our <a href="https://www.facebook.com/TwibyHistoryGeekStuff/">Facebook</a> or catch me on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/lewistwiby?lang=en">@LewisTwiby.</a></div>
Lewis Twibyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03565517444017278980noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6707020941988899278.post-48023828552306379252020-02-02T09:37:00.001-08:002020-02-02T09:37:12.402-08:00Paleo Profiles: Elasmotherium<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEit6hzkFp3IgDNgNxbofwK1wM-ixuW8PML4h01jWrD5xFswp9ajnnUE-nWqXKjBwnxj4QU2aDQ6n2wln1BzWOcqTMbnU9UbNH8M234VxNPw3O1408kHX8Mh5upx0TtlFh0EHtQ9Bw9Js9u0/s1600/siberian-unicorn-painting-full-width.jpg.thumb.1920.1920.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="600" data-original-width="1160" height="165" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEit6hzkFp3IgDNgNxbofwK1wM-ixuW8PML4h01jWrD5xFswp9ajnnUE-nWqXKjBwnxj4QU2aDQ6n2wln1BzWOcqTMbnU9UbNH8M234VxNPw3O1408kHX8Mh5upx0TtlFh0EHtQ9Bw9Js9u0/s320/siberian-unicorn-painting-full-width.jpg.thumb.1920.1920.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Reconstruction by W.S. van der Merwe</td></tr>
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The Ice Age has become synonymous with larger than life woolly animals ranging from the <i>Megaloceros</i>, a deer with antlers the same length as a human is high, the woolly rhino <i>Coelodonta</i>, and the famous woolly mammoth. However, another woolly rhino roamed the plains of Ice Age Eurasia - the <i>Elasmotherium</i>. Often called the 'Siberian Unicorn' for its long horn the <i>Elasmotherium </i>is one of the many unique animals to roam the Ice Age world.</div>
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<b>Discovery and Fossils</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQeAFU2fHe-ZkhQFbS0mZG8-VOXmlnr-D6goFrpo6eda9CZh8S5EWBNbS7qsIXxOnmgUPIcHbxdgFK3MCDs6eT2xlRxudoAJ0SuaLU9-6jv6f-ih3wfuWNHULt_AqNhkg5NzNOdx5g20NS/s1600/330px-Elasmotherium_skeleton%252C_Azov_Museum_%25281%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="186" data-original-width="330" height="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQeAFU2fHe-ZkhQFbS0mZG8-VOXmlnr-D6goFrpo6eda9CZh8S5EWBNbS7qsIXxOnmgUPIcHbxdgFK3MCDs6eT2xlRxudoAJ0SuaLU9-6jv6f-ih3wfuWNHULt_AqNhkg5NzNOdx5g20NS/s320/330px-Elasmotherium_skeleton%252C_Azov_Museum_%25281%2529.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A skeleton at Azov History, Archaeology and Paleontology Museum-Reserve</td></tr>
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The <i>Elasmotherium </i>was first described at the start of the 1800s by a Russian/German palaeontologist called Gotthelf Fischer von Waldheim. The fossil had been owned by a close friend of Catherine the Great, Yekaterina Dashkova, who donated it to the Moscow University in 1807, so Waldheim described it the following year. He named the fossil <i>Elasmotherium sibericum </i>- Thin Plate Beast from Siberia. Since then, many more fossils of this extinct rhino have been found across Eurasia, ranging from Siberia and China in east Asia all the way up to Ukraine in eastern Europe. A second species of <i>Elasmotherium </i>was discovered in 1914 by another Russian palaeontologist Aleksei Borissiak in the Caucasus region along the Black Sea - this new species was far older and was named <i>Elasmotherium caucasicum</i>. Research in the early-2000s found that some of the fossils assigned to the Caucasus species was in fact that of a different species of <i>Elasmotherium </i>- this new species was named <i>Elasmotherium chaprovicum</i>. As the <i>Elasmotherium </i>went extinct relatively recently in the history of the planet palaeontologists have recently managed to take DNA samples from fossils, something which allows us to know that <i>Elasmotherium </i>was on the rhino evolutionary tree, and we may even have cave art. Art by our ancestors can give palaeontologists good insights into how prehistoric animals looked and acted. Rouffignac Cave in France depicts a wide range of now extinct animals, mostly mammoths, but one has puzzled archaeologists. One seemed to be a one-horned rhino, but the <i>Coelodonta</i>, known to live in the area and alongside humans, had two horns. Although it can easily be a <i>Coelodonta </i>with artistic licensing, it could also be an <i>Elasmotherium </i>possibly showing that people in France somewhat knew about the <i>Elasmotherium</i>.</div>
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<b>When and Where</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNyyJZQ_tSwnHTDOGapzpriznqBQk2-K-d0n-k3VVqyCPqr1ZKIz6iH34tk0_bPpflFHAa63V4yTKCU3np3Ag7TRmbGt6swLTcszehosYgJwJFb6WBW4F5nTfBTwEl2csuWWn_FwDj3vy4/s1600/elas.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="564" data-original-width="755" height="239" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNyyJZQ_tSwnHTDOGapzpriznqBQk2-K-d0n-k3VVqyCPqr1ZKIz6iH34tk0_bPpflFHAa63V4yTKCU3np3Ag7TRmbGt6swLTcszehosYgJwJFb6WBW4F5nTfBTwEl2csuWWn_FwDj3vy4/s320/elas.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The distribution of fossils by Schvyreva</td></tr>
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The genus of <i>Elasmotherium </i>first appeared in the Pliocene about 2.5 million years ago - these fossils were from the <i>caucasicum </i>and <i>chaprovicum</i> species. Eventually these two species would go extinct, and they evolved into the better known <i>Elasmotherium sibericum</i>. Recent research has revealed an interesting aspect of when the <i>Elasmotherium </i>went extinct. Traditionally, it has been believed that the <i>Elasmotherium </i>went extinct sometime between 200,000 and 100,000 years ago during an epoch known as the Pleistocene. As this was many thousands of years before the large-scale Pleistocene Extinction, caused through a mixture of climate change and human activity, for sometime it was believed that it was a victim of 'natural extinction'. This is when a species naturally goes extinct, and a new species evolves to fill the vacant ecological role left behind. However, research done on 23 fossils in 2018 found that <i>Elasmotherium </i>managed to survive until a long time after this date. Through radiocarbon dating it has been found that they managed to survive in what is now Kazakhstan until as recent as 39,000 years ago. <i>Elasmotherium </i>was found from eastern Europe all the way up to Siberia at their height, so this Central Asian population represented the last of the rhinos. </div>
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<b>Biology</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgkekQMOgTEFSNZcKaiR0cewm3zZP27GcF6g9OJhXeGuBniG42yzrOdeYDUed_w5Z4gmcK8eYacSv-5uxM_ie88nGJgB3g-zbri2LFgV3aNQH2WficQYg2_JMxJJkUVqtee5OT9DByb5CHw/s1600/330px-Elasmotherium_cave_art.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="182" data-original-width="330" height="176" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgkekQMOgTEFSNZcKaiR0cewm3zZP27GcF6g9OJhXeGuBniG42yzrOdeYDUed_w5Z4gmcK8eYacSv-5uxM_ie88nGJgB3g-zbri2LFgV3aNQH2WficQYg2_JMxJJkUVqtee5OT9DByb5CHw/s320/330px-Elasmotherium_cave_art.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A possible depiction in Rouffignac Cave</td></tr>
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Unlike the better known woolly rhino, there has been many debates about the biology of the <i>Elasmotherium</i>. The big issue is its horn. You will often see this rhino recreated with one big horn, earning it the nickname of 'the Siberian unicorn'. However, there is an issue with this - we don't actually know if it had a horn. Rhino horn is made of keratin, the same material which our nails and hair is made of, which does not preserve as easily as bone, so few <i>Elasmotherium </i>horn has been preserved. It is more than likely that it did have a horn, especially as other Pleistocene rhinos had horns. Now that DNA analysis has found that <i>Elasmotherium </i>is indeed in the same family as modern rhinos, it is certain that they had a horn. Another question then arises, what did the horn look like? Rhino horns can look very different species to species, and one hypothesis is that each <i>Elasmotherium </i>species had a horn looking different to others. This is especially the case as the early species lived alongside one another; the shape of the horns could be a quick way to differentiate between the two species. All of them likely would have thick muscles around the shoulders so they could lift up their heads.</div>
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Another debate is whether <i>Elasmotherium </i>had thick fur. A paper from 1878 has claimed that they did comparing them to '<i>contemporary rhinoceros and mammoth</i>'. However, this is based on an idea that the Ice Age was a continuous period of icy coldness - instead there were glacial periods which moved between periods of warmth and bitter cold. It is quite likely that during the warmer periods they would have had thinner layers of fur, which gave way to thick shaggy fur during the cold periods. The Siberian cold was also dry, so a thick layer of fur could better trap in the heat. Unlike other rhinos, the <i>Elasmotherium </i>had quite long legs, so it is quite possible that they stood more upright, similar to horses, than other rhinos. This has led to some off reconstructions like the one below:</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJxz0RdJwrPnxdVf6tLYbhV9isgBlpLyvDjvQmhkK8IKp6sjILgMoL5rEqyE81z5Iy04e-H-zjiBgm-iW8Li0gK_iK5s9T2g5LmcPgbh8FDvMvZqYumHm09cnraS_1KaMf1gI3hgcE5NFR/s1600/Elasmotherium.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="384" data-original-width="610" height="201" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJxz0RdJwrPnxdVf6tLYbhV9isgBlpLyvDjvQmhkK8IKp6sjILgMoL5rEqyE81z5Iy04e-H-zjiBgm-iW8Li0gK_iK5s9T2g5LmcPgbh8FDvMvZqYumHm09cnraS_1KaMf1gI3hgcE5NFR/s320/Elasmotherium.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The reconstruction by Heinrich Harder, c.1920</td></tr>
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It is likely that <i>Elasmotherium </i>moved like a modern bison. Its head close to the earth grazing, with long legs allowing it to run fast. For this reason, it is possible that it could gallop at quite fast speeds.</div>
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<b>Diet and Habitat</b></div>
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Isotope analysis has allowed us to know what the <i>Elasmotherium </i>ate. High levels of certain compounds indicate that they would have eaten tough grasses, and this is further shown by their teeth. Their teeth have deep roots, and fossilised teeth show indication of continuous wear. If you see how a modern white rhino eats this is how the <i>Elasmotherium </i>would also eat. They were perfectly adapted to their particular environment. Just like today, large areas of Ukraine, Siberia, and Central Asia are grasslands with nothing to see for miles, something which gets covered in snow during the winter. <i>Elasmotherium </i>had wide feet which would allow them to wade through snow, and their big horn would also be useful to move snow so they could access the grass beneath. Due to the low nutrition in tough grasses, and based on how rhinos claim wide areas as their territory, an <i>Elasmotherium </i>would actually be a fairly rare sight. A solitary life to monopolise access to grass, only meeting up to mate. Other animals would have lived alongside this rhino. Looking at fossils from eastern Europe dating from around 200,000 years ago, A.K. Schyreva has shown that they would have lived alongside now extinct camel and bison species, early mammoths, saiga antelope, and the giant antlered <i>Megaloceros</i>. The later ones would have also lived alongside the famous woolly mammoth, and most likely humans. Some fossils have been found in Italy, and possible presence in cave art meant that humans could have also lived alongside them.</div>
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<b>Extinction</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiksBARv7LlzAZbKlnff91FGZVxdYhWdcam2C2zZGWoHdvGULeAH8N48jotrPx9_goNW4599eYDiBi7hUf3VMRYWK_QNAkb22jE8nM0i8LxS_Khll1rbn6ibnzNYP4XsiGVcz9f8XkDGe5W/s1600/siberian-unicorn-skeleton-two-column.jpg.thumb.768.768.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="513" data-original-width="753" height="218" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiksBARv7LlzAZbKlnff91FGZVxdYhWdcam2C2zZGWoHdvGULeAH8N48jotrPx9_goNW4599eYDiBi7hUf3VMRYWK_QNAkb22jE8nM0i8LxS_Khll1rbn6ibnzNYP4XsiGVcz9f8XkDGe5W/s320/siberian-unicorn-skeleton-two-column.jpg.thumb.768.768.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Skeleton Reconstruction, photo can be found <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/news/2018/november/the-siberian-unicorn-lived-at-the-same-time-as-modern-humans.html">here</a></td></tr>
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Now that we know that <i>Elasmotherium </i>went extinct around 39,000 years ago we can put them as one of the casualties of the Quaternary extinction event. Beginning around 130,000 years ago the peak of the extinctions occurred between 12-8,000 years ago, but it is important to remember that the <i>Elasmotherium </i>was limited to a smaller area by 39,000 years ago. At this time cooler temperatures started chaging the environment, and the grasses which the rhinos grazed on gave way to lichens and mosses. Especially as more herbivores could eat these plants, it meant that the rhinos suddenly had far more competition, on top of their primary food source becoming depleted. As expected, humanity sealed the deal. As humans started moving into areas inhabited by <i>Elasmotherium </i>they would start hunting them. Consequently, the struggling pockets of rhinos would be pushed into extinction - a tale unfortunately all too common.</div>
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The sources I have used are as follows:</div>
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-A.K. Schyreva, 'On the importance of the representatives of the genus <i>Elasmotherium </i>(Rhinocerotidae, Mammalia) in the biochronology of the Pleistocene of Eastern Europe', <i>Quaternary International</i>, 379, (2015), 128-134</div>
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-'The <i>Elasmotherium</i>', <i>Nature</i>, 18:458, (1878), 387-389</div>
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-Pavel Kosintsev, Kieren J. Mitchell, Thibaut Devièse, Johannes van der Plicht, Margot Kuitems, Ekaterina Petrova, Alexei Tikhonov, Thomas Higham, Daniel Comeskey, Chris Turney, Alan Cooper, Thijs van Kolfschoten, Anthony J. Stuart, and Adrian M. Lister, 'Evolution and Extinction of the giant rhinoceros <i>Elasmotherium sibiricum </i>sheds light on the late Quaternary megafaunal extinctions', <i>Nature</i>, 3, (2019), 31-38</div>
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-'Elasmotherium', <i><a href="http://www.prehistoric-wildlife.com/species/e/elasmotherium.html">Prehistoric-Wildlife.com</a>, </i>[Accessed 31/01/2020]</div>
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-Josh Davis, 'The Siberian unicorn lived at the same time as modern humans', <i>Natural History Museum</i>, (26/11/2018), [Accessed 31/01/2020]</div>
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Thank you for reading. For other Paleo Profiles we have a list <a href="http://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/p/paleo-profiles.html">here</a>. For other blog posts please see our <a href="https://www.facebook.com/TwibyHistoryGeekStuff/">Facebook</a> or catch me on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/lewistwiby?lang=en">@LewisTwiby</a>.</div>
Lewis Twibyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03565517444017278980noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6707020941988899278.post-87715745913149787742020-01-26T03:38:00.001-08:002020-01-26T03:38:31.608-08:00Comics Explained: Morbius, the Living Vampire<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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Recently, the movie trailer for <i>Morbius </i>has been released, so we'll be seeing the live-action debut of Morbius the Living Vampire. One of Spider-Man's foes, and an anti-hero as well, he has been an interesting character in the Marvel Universe. Although vampires do exist in the Marvel Universe, Blade being the most famous of Marvel's vampire, Morbius isn't really a vampire - that's why he's the 'Living Vampire'. </div>
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<b>Creation</b></div>
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Morbius debuted in the early-1970s when the now infamous Comics Code Authority started amending their draconian rules; fearing that the big publishers would abandon the Code, something which happened anyway, they started reforming some of their rules. One of the rules they amended was lifting the ban on featuring the walking dead, vampires, ghouls, zombies, and werewolves. Marvel decided to jump straight into the supernatural genre - after all, Stan Lee had worked on the supernatural comics of the <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2018/10/the-horror-comics-of-1940s-and-1950s.html">1940s and 1950s</a> which were killed off by the Code. As Lee was working on a movie screenplay, and Spider-Man creator Steve Ditko had moved on by the 1970s, the task of creating a vampire antagonist for Spider-Man fell to one of Marvel's biggest writers - Roy Thomas. Years later, Thomas would be quoted as saying '<i>We were talking about doing Dracula, but Stan wanted a costumed villain. Other than that, he didn't specify what we should do</i>'. Teaming up with artist Gil Kane they ended up creating Morbius the Living Vampire. Thomas was inspired by a movie he had watched years ago, and Kane modelled their living vampire off of actor Jack Palance. As a result, Morbius made his debut in <i>The Amazing Spider-Man #101</i> in 1971 becoming one of the earliest vampiric characters in comics for decades.</div>
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<b>Origins</b></div>
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Morbius debuted in <i>The Amazing Spider-Man #101</i>, but his origin was explained in the next issue through flashbacks. Dr. Michael Morbius was a Greek scientist specialising in biochemistry; he was such an expert in his field that he even won the Nobel Prize. However, he began developing a blood disorder which was slowly wasting him away. Not wanting to slowly die he began trying to find a cure, and he relied on a mixture of vampire bat DNA and electroshock therapy - if you notice a similarity between Batman's Man-Bat it is no coincidence. DC similarly wanted to take advantage of the Code's reforms, so also introduced their vampire-like villain in the comics of one of their most popular characters. Just like DC's Kirk Langstrom, Morbius's experiments went wrong and made his situation worse. Although he no longer suffered from his debilitating disease, his body underwent changes. He gained the ability to 'psionic glide', rapid health regeneration, super-speed, super-agility, and super-strength. However, at the same time, he became reliant on drinking fresh blood to survive, became injured by sunlight, became pale, grew sharp canines, and his nose flattened to resemble of bat's. Unlike actual vampires, he was a 'living vampire'. Morbius was still alive and lacked some of their weaknesses - he is unaffected by garlic, religious icons, and he cannot be killed by sunlight. When he does bite someone, and doesn't kill them, he too can create other living vampires - he can control these new vampires and he is far stronger than they are.</div>
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Now to his debut - in typical Spider-Man and Marvel fashion it is over-the-top. In <i>The Amazing Spider-Man #100 </i>Spider-Man grew four extra arms - finally he was a 'Spider-Man' having eight limbs. Wanting to reverse this he tried to find the Lizard - a scientist who, just like Morbius, tried to use animal DNA to help his body, but ended up turning him into an anthropomorphic lizard. Morbius moved to New York hoping that it could offer a place for him to research a cure for his condition. However, in his blood thirst, he slaughtered the crew of the ship which brought him to New York - just like Dracula slaughtering the crew which brought him to Britain. Unlike Dracula, with his blood thirst cured he is guilt-ridden, so tries, and fails, to kill himself. Secluding himself in what he thinks is an abandoned building, it is actually where Spider-Man and Curt Connors (the human form of the Lizard) are working on the cure for their conditions. When it fails, a frustrated Spider-Man smashes their test tubes waking up Morbius. Powered by blood-lust he attacked and almost killed Spider-Man unlike Connors, now transformed into Lizard, stopped him. During the battle Morbius bites Lizard partially transforming him back to Connors. Realising that Morbius holds the cure the duo track him across New York, and eventually extract his blood curing him - Spider-Man permanently, Connors wasn't as lucky.</div>
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<b>Other Appearances</b></div>
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Since his debut Morbius has periodically appeared in a wide range of comics - sometimes as a villain and sometimes as an anti-hero. In <i>Marvel Team-Up #3 </i>his fiance Martine Bancroft tracked Morbius to the United States. One of the reasons why he travelled across continents was through the fear that he could lose control and kill Martine. She was adament that she could help Morbius, in fact she would be one of the regular occurring characters associated with Morbius. Naturally, she knew the smartest people around could help the vampire, so she tracked down the Fantastic Four. Together the Human Torch and Spider-Man tried to capture Morbius, but he was too strong and managed to flee. In 1973, to get around the Comics Code Authority Marvel started publishing magazines with maturer content and one of these was <i>Vampire Tales</i>. Among the stories to find its way into the 11-issues were those including Blade, and an adaptation of one of the earliest vampire novels - <i>The Vampyr</i>. Morbius was featured in most of the issues, and this would pave the way for his regular appearance in Marvel's <i>Adventure into Fear </i>which began publishing in 1974. He would periodically appear until 1992 when he gained his own title which lasted for 32 issues. This was to tie into the Midnight Sons. Dr Strange regularly formed temporary teams to act as hit squads into the wider Multiverse - when a supernatural threat appeared he could send them to swiftly deal with it. The same year Morbius debuted, one of Strange's teams also debuted - <i>The Defenders</i>. The Midnight Sons were formed to stop demonic and supernatural threats seemingly by the Ghost Riders Johnny Blaze and Danny Ketch in <i>Ghost Rider Vol.3 #28</i>, but behind the scenes it was due to Dr Strange. Morbius fought alongside the Ghost Riders, Damien Hellstorm the Son of Satan, sorceress Jennifer Hale, and Werewolf-by-Night. Among their foes have included the Mother of Demons Lilith and zombies from the <i>Marvel Zombies </i>universe. Of course, Morbius has had run-ins with Blade - during <i>Civil War </i>he even registered with the government in an effort to get Blade to.</div>
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Morbius has had a sporadic history, and often with other bigger characters - most notably Blade or the Midnight Sons - so that's where we will leave it for today. I hope you found it interesting, and for future blog updates please see our <a href="https://www.facebook.com/TwibyHistoryGeekStuff/">Facebook</a> or catch me on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/lewistwiby?lang=en">@LewisTwiby</a>.</div>
Lewis Twibyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03565517444017278980noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6707020941988899278.post-90040881738983443342020-01-19T10:54:00.004-08:002020-01-19T10:54:56.336-08:00World History: The Middle East and Imperialism<div style="text-align: justify;">
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Egyptian Revolution of 1919</td></tr>
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As we have seen in previous World History posts, the nineteenth and early-twentieth century saw European states becoming powerful and proceeding to colonise the rest of the world. The Middle East is often overlooked in this narrative, largely as formal European colonies, outside of North Africa that is, were not formed until after World War One. When they are discussed it is often viewed through the lens of decline, the famous Ottoman Empire, for example, became known as the 'Sick Man of Europe'. However, Middle Eastern states did not simply see exploitation; states tried to negotiate their power and tried to resist foreign exploitation. If we want to understand exactly why the Middle East has become what it is today, it is important to look at this time period. Today's events are either a direct response to the events which we'll discuss today, or the seeds of today's events were planted during this period. As the Middle East and North Africa were an incredibly diverse region split over several different states we'll largely look just at Turkey, Egypt, and Iran, but we will at times discuss other areas of the region - such as the Arabian peninsula.<br />
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<b>The Shift - c.1800</b><br />
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The last decade of the eighteenth century and the first of the nineteenth saw a shift in the Middle East. The same year that the <a href="http://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2018/09/world-history-french-revolution.html">French Revolution</a> broke out Selim III became Ottoman sultan, and he wanted the empire to change. Selim saw the height of the Ottoman empire being under <a href="http://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2018/04/world-history-ottoman-empire.html">Suleiman</a>, and hoped that, through reform, the empire's strength could be resurrected. In a precursor to what will trouble his successors Selim opened embassies in Europe, and invited Europeans to help create a new military called the <i>nizam-i jedid </i>(new order). Previously, the military and bureaucracy had been controlled by the Janissaries who had become so powerful that they could appoint sultans. Selim's reforms proved short lived. Local landowners, who were taxed to fund the <i>nizam-i jedid</i>, and Janissaries were angered by the reforms and deposed Selim in 1806 to be executed the next year. Meanwhile, another great shock impacted another area of the empire - Egypt. Aiming to both cut British access to India and copy his idol of Alexander the Great, Napoleon Bonaparte invaded in 1798. Although welcomed by the more reform-minded elite and traders eager to do business with the French, Napoleon's forces quickly upset the locals. When the French forces were stranded after the British destroyed the fleet in Aboukir Bay they became increasingly willing to loot Egyptian cities, they even desecrated important mosques. In 1801 a joint British-Ottoman expedition wiped out the French forces, and in the ensuing power vacuum an Albanian commander called Muhammad Ali was appointed pasha, governor, of Egypt. Muhammad Ali would radically shape Egypt, but the Napoleonic invasion shattered an image of the secure, albeit decentralised, empire. The Ottoman holdings in the Balkans began breaking off - often with European help - with Greece waging a decade long war from 1821.<br />
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Meanwhile, a new power rose in Iran. Originally a Turkish tribe in Azerbaijan the Qajars began expanding across Iran - in 1786 the managed to declare Tehran their capital and in 1796 managed to declare the Qajar dynasty. Following the end of the <a href="http://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2018/04/world-history-safavids.html">Safavid dynasty</a> in 1736 Iran had lacked a strong dynasty which allowed the Qajars to take control. The first shah, Agha Mohammad, had to give autonomy to many local rulers and institutions. As the Safavids emerged through a Shi'a religious movement this allowed them to have little opposition from the important religious institutions; the Qajars could not claim this and the Iranian <i>mujtahids </i>would offer an alternate source of power to the Qajar shahs. Agha Mohammad would not reign for long - he was assassinated in 1797. Unlike contemporaries in the Ottoman Empire and Egypt, the Qajars would never successfully establish some form of central authority.<br />
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<b>Egypt - The First Reforms</b><br />
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Muhammad Ali would establish a dynasty which would rule Egypt, for better or for worse, until the 1950s. Similar to the Ottoman Empire, the Egyptian military and bureaucracy was ran by a class called the Mamluks; like the Janissaries they were the elite of Egyptian society, and became an entrenched class. Unlike Selim III Muhammad Ali would wait until after the dissolving of the Mamluks before creating the <i>nizam-i jedid</i>. After years of slowly chipping away their power, in March 1811 the leading Mamluks were invited for a banquet in Cairo where they were killed enabling Muhammad Ali to dissolve them. With the conservative Mamluks destroyed it allowed Muhammad Ali to reform education, administration, and the military. A European-inspired military and navy were implemented, and attempts to create new military ranks were done through authoritarian means. Expeditions to Sudan were made to enslave 20,000 people in order to create a slave army - brutal treatment and dehumanisation meant that most were killed. As a result, a <i>nizam-i jedid </i>was created in 1822 made out of conscripted peasants, and proved to be the backbone of Muhammad Ali's new army. Expeditions to Sudan were done for gold and slaves, they were sent to Greece in the War of Independence, and even against the Ottomans themselves when they invaded Syria in the 1830s as Muhammad Ali was angered that the sultan had gone back on the promise to award him Crete. Military reforms not the only ones which Muhammad Ali undertook.<br />
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Reforms in administration, land, industry, and education were all undertaken. New administrative divisions were created where Muhammad Ali appointed loyalists as governors to rule over Egyptian <i>fellahin </i>(peasants). Furthermore, new government departments were created in War, Navy, Finance, Industry, and Foreign Affairs with specialised schools being established to fill them. It was clear that Muhammad Ali viewed his role in a decentralised Ottoman Empire as being more than just a simple pasha. Similar to <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2019/11/world-history-meiji-japan.html">Japan</a> and <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2019/12/world-history-chinas-changes-from.html">China</a> during this period, students were sent to Europe in order to gain an education, and return to Egypt to serve as bureaucrats. During his rule 311 students were sent to France, Britain, Italy, and Austria in order to fill the new administration. This existed alongside the first Arabic newspaper to be produced in the 1820s, and a printing press to publish educational works in Arabic, Turkish, and Persian. This was to create a literate elite in order to guide Egypt to his idealised 'modern' state. The first tentative steps towards industrialisation also began in order to 'make Egypt part of Europe' - the first factories were made, canals and irrigation were repaired to encourage efficient crop production, and state monopolies were established to ensure the state could gain the profits. By the 1840s a third of the labour force were under state control, and 80% of agricultural produce was in state hands. However, Muhammad Ali's plans were hampered by a lack of resources, like coal, to power the heavy industry which he wanted, and the primarily rural nation meant there were few urban workers needed for industrial work. His invasion of Syria came to a crushing end when Britain helped the central Ottoman state the Egyptians, and the ensuing London Convention forced him to reduce the size of his military in return for having his own dynasty. This would begin European dictation of Egyptian affairs.<br />
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<b>The Ottomans and Tanzimat</b><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Fuad Pasha</td></tr>
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Attempts to reform the Ottoman Empire did not end with Selim III's murder. A later sultan, Mahmud II, worked to slowly undermine the Janissaries so in 1826 he could wipe them out in the 'Auspicious Incident' of 1826. Under Mahmud a reformer called Mustafa Rashid Pasha became increasingly important, so when Mahmud died in 1839 he could greatly influence the new sultan Abdulaziz. Rashid's protegees Fuad and Ali further allowed the Tanzimat reforms to continue after the death of Rashid. In 1839 the two released the Edict of Gulhane beginning a period known as the 'Tanzimat' - reorganisation. The aim of the Tanzimat was to create a 'modern' Ottoman Empire by reorganising different aspects of society. Despite being a top-down reform movement it paved the way for bottom-up implementation of these ideas in later years. Just like in Egypt, new educational, administrative, and military reforms were implemented to placate both internal separatists and to show foreign powers that the Ottomans were modern. The earliest edicts, including equality before the law regardless of religion, guarantees to property, and a new tax system were possibly done to gain British support against the forces of Muhammad Ali. Later reforms involved simplifying taxation, abolishing the death penalty, developing consultative assemblies, and a wide range of new schools. From 1847 a series of new secular schools were created, and foreign religious schools were also opened to create ties between Europe and the Empire. Mainly, these were Protestant and Catholic mission schools, but there was also the Jewish Alliance Israelite Universelle. Although very conservative the first schools for women were opened in 1863 - like many other women's schools at the time it was created with the idea of creating good Muslim wives and mothers. Some upper-class women were able to study abroad, and religious minorities had access to some mission schools. Christians, for example, had access to the American College for Girls, first opened in 1871, until 1891 when it was opened to non-Christians. One of the major Turkish women's leaders, Halide Edip, was the first Muslim woman to graduate from there. The traditional religious communities, the <i>ulama</i>, constantly criticised this, and proved to be one of the major undermining factors limiting the Tanzimat.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The aftermath of the 1860 Revolt</td></tr>
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The Tanzimat also aimed to create a united Ottoman state. Although the <i>millets</i>, quasi-autonomous communities for minorities, still remained in existence the Tanzimat reduced their autonomy in order to create loyalty solely to the sultan. A key part of this was the rise of nationalism in the Ottoman lands - soon enough Romania and Bulgaria would also break off from the empire. There was also another issue that if Christian communities were attacked it would give foreign powers even more excuses to intervene. During the Tanzimat period the Crimean War broke out as France and Russia clashed over who could intervene in Ottoman affairs. This was particularly frightening for Ottoman officials when looking at Mount Lebanon. The region had long been a site of refuge for religious dissidents, especially Christian Maronites and the Druzes, and the Egyptian invasion would cause clashes. Muhammad Ali's son Ibrahim was placed in charge of Syria - back then a region consisting of modern Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel and Palestine. The clashes caused resentment which spilled over during the Tanzimat. Maronites became increasingly wealthier thanks to new educational institutes and commercial ties with Europe. The resentment broke out into communal violence in 1860 and to avoid French involvement Fuad Pasha himself went to Mount Lebanon to see that Muslims who killed Maronites were punished. A new political system was made, a <i>mutasarrifiyyah</i>, that was partially guaranteed by European powers. This effectively showed the flaws of the Tanzimat. The reliance on foreign powers meant that the Ottomans became increasingly in their debt. The period came crashing down in 1876. When Abdulaziz tried to reassert his power a political crisis caused his resignation and the introduction of a new constitution, but his successor, Abdul Hamid, was firmly against reform.<br />
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<b>Reformers and Radicals</b><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Al-Afghani</td></tr>
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Throughout the 1800s new ideas started being spread. In the Arabian peninsula the Wahhabi movement began emerging. Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was educated in Mecca and Medina during the 1700s, and began preaching that Muslims had to return to the teaching of Islam, in the words of Albert Hourani, 'understood by the followers of Ibn Hanbal: strict obedience to the Qu'ran and Hadith...and rejection of all that could be regarded as illegitimate innovations.' Local chieftain Muhammad ibn Sa'ud started supporting the Wahhabi thought, and his presence along key trade routes allowed the spreading of his polito-religious forces, so much so that in 1803 he captured Mecca. As Wahhabi thought declared that the Ottomans were not the protectors of Islam the sultan sent Muhammad Ali to destroy the movement. Although military defeated, Wahhabism became ingrained in the region, and set the stage for the modern Saudi state's religious ideology. Meanwhile, in Iran, emerged Jamal al-Din al-Afghani. Kumari Jayawardena has placed great emphasis on al-Afghani's rhetoric inspiring anti-imperialist and liberatory ideas in the Islamic world during this period. Living across states across Europe and Asia, largely as he kept on being exiled, he called for Pan-Islamic unity and anti-absolutism. In <i>al-Urwah al-Wuthqa </i>he said that Islam had fallen into decadence and stagnation, so they had to abandon superstition and unite with one another. Especially among young Muslims his advocacy against accepting the status quo was well received. An Egyptian student of his, Muhammad Abduh, became a key figure in Egyptian law arguing that modernity and Islam were not mutually exclusive.<br />
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There were secular movements to emerge as well. In Turkey a group of scholars, inspired by French writing, formed a group named the Young Ottomans. The key figures in this were Namik Kemal, Ibrahim Sinasi, and Ziya Pasha who all lived in France due to oppression back at home. Sinasi himself even took part in the Paris Revolution of 1848, and in 1862 began a Turkish journal criticising the regime. In particular, they said that all people, regardless of ethnicity and faith, should be welcomed as equal citizens into Ottoman society. The Young Ottomans themselves remained in exile for most of their lives, but their writings would inspire new generations of radicals and reformers. Among them was Fatima Aliye who in 1892 wrote the novel <i>Muhadarat</i>, (Womanhood), stating that traditional culture held women back, and she would help found <i>A Newspaper for Ladies</i>, one of the key early feminist regular publications. In 1889 the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) was formed to resist the Ottoman sultan's repression. They are now better known as the Young Turks. Unlike earlier movements they were firmly secular, nationalist, and pro-West, so much so that some of their rhetoric shows the xenophobia Westerners had towards the Middle East. Ahmad Muhtar stated that 'Either we westernize, or we are destroyed', while Abdullah Cevdet would write 'There is no second civilization; civilization means European civilization and it must be imported with both its roses and thorns.' The Young Turks also proudly called themselves Turkish, something which had previously been used as an insult.<br />
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<b>Egypt - Becoming a Colony</b><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Opening the Suez Canal</td></tr>
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Despite earlier defeats Egypt tried to rebuild itself, its rulers adopted the title 'khedive' - a distinguished title in Persian. One of the key rulers was Khedive Ismail who had the view that 'Egypt was part of Europe.' He began an expansive and ambitious project designed to bring Egypt closer to Europe, at times quite literally. Capitulations, something which also emerged in the Ottoman Empire and Iran, allowed foreign subjects to not exempt from Egyptian law, instead they answered to the laws of their own country. In order to enter the European market Ismail invested heavily in cotton production during the American Civil War, and it quickly collapsed after the end of the war. A series of new schools aimed to craft an elite along European lines. In 1872 the Dar al-Ulum was formed to retrain religious school graduates along European lines, in 1868 the School of Languages was reopened as a more elitist and European institution, and in 1873 Ismail's wife Jashem Afet Hanum formed the Suyfiyya Girls School which soon had 400 pupils. Most famously is the creation of the Suez Canal. In 1854 Ferdinand de Lesseps was given a concession to construct the canal, and when Ismail became khedive he invested a large fraction of Egypt's wealth into the construction. To much pomp and international celebrations the Suez Canal was opened in 1869, but Ismail had bankrupted the country. With over 60,000 being conscripted to work on the canal this reduced crop output, and taxes for peasants rose by 75% within three years. A negotiation for money with landowners gave him a quick reprieve, but weakened the state's leverage over the landlords. In 1875 he was forced to sell his 44% shares in the canal to Britain, but this didn't stop Egypt from being declared bankrupt in 1876. In 1879 the debts forced him to abdicate in favour of Tawfiq, and soon enough a rebellion broke out. Ahmad Urabi was a <i>fellahin </i>who became important in the army, and was seen as an authentic voice for the Egyptian people. In January 1881 Urabi led a mutiny against a law preventing Egyptians from rising in the army, but it soon evolved into a movement against autocracy and imperial domination. With popular support, 'Egypt for the Egyptians', Urabi was brought into government. Britain and France disliked such a popular nationalist being in power, and used a nationalist riot in June 1882 in Alexandria to invade. Urabi was exiled to Sri Lanka and Britain established the 'veiled protectorate' of Britain.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Dinshaway Hangings</td></tr>
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Lord Cromer was made 'counsel-general' of Egypt, a polite term for the governor as officially the Ottomans still ruled in Egypt. Cromer had a low view of the Islamic states, his diaries from his time in Iran are full of phrases such as 'Oriental despotism.' While some of Cromer's policies can be considered progressive - such as banning the usage of whips - only the wealthy benefited from British rule. Cotton mills were discouraged, as it could compete with British cotton production, but cotton growing was encouraged making <i>fellahin </i>increasingly indebted. Cromer had also been an official in the British Raj, and viewed education as a way that nationalists could be created. As a result he tried to limit the implementation of higher education, and cut funding to build new schools. Only after Cromer left his position was the Egyptian University in Cairo created in 1908. Cromer was further well known for his despotism. While he opposed the construction of schools he was in favour of building prisons, and eagerly used forced labour to enforce his building projects. In 1906 British officers went pigeon shooting, something very dangerous for local peoples who heavily relied on pigeons for their livelihoods. At the village of Dinshaway soldiers clashed with villagers and two soldiers were injured - one died later, largely from heat stroke. Cromer came down hard. The 52 villagers were tried, 34 were convicted, and four were hanged with the remaining 30 being flogged. This caused a national outrage so bad that Cromer was forced to resign. Mustafa Kamil, editor of the paper <i>al-Liwa</i>, formed the Watani Party, made mostly of urban men, to campaign for Egyptian freedom. Following the First World War, when Egyptian lawyer Sa'd Zaghlul formed the w<i>afd</i>, delegation, Egyptians hoped his presence at Versailles could allow the Allied powers to hear their plight. Britain responded by arresting the Wafd's leaders and exiling them to Malta. An uprising, largely led by women, then broke out in 1919 which only stopped when Zaghlul was allowed to attend Versailles.<br />
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<b>Iran's Troubles</b><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Rebels in the Constitutional War</td></tr>
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The shah through most of the 1800s, Nasir al-Din (1848-1896), like his contemporaries tried to reform the state. However, this was hard for several reasons. Mainly, it was due to the Qajar dynasty having little formal power outside of Tehran. As stated earlier, tribes and religious institutes remained powerful politically and militarily. Through this it was also hard to make them pay taxes so there was a serious lack of funds. When taxes were paid it wasn't to the state. Instead the religious councils collected the <i>zakat </i>taxes, and instead they used it to fund schools. Early on the Cossack Brigade was created in 1879, but it was small at around 3,000 and was dominated by imported Russian officers. An institute of higher learning, the Dar al-Fun, was created in 1851 which was staffed by Europeans, but it remained an extremely elite institute. An observer in the 1870s reported that there were only 70 students. All this was not helped by Nasir al-Din himself - the public widely viewed him as doing nothing and living a life of luxury. Like elsewhere, Iran became a debtor state as foreign states, largely Britain and Russia, began extracting more and more concessions devastating local economies. The bazaaris, merchants, were especially affected as they now were pushed out by European companies. In 1890 Britain was given exclusive right to control Iran's tobacco crop. Al-Afghani, who was an adviser to the shah, resigned and nationalist protests broke out. In 1891 the religious bodies intervened when a Shiraz <i>mujtahid </i>declared that using tobacco went against the Hidden Imam, if anyone was reluctant to join the protests now enthusiastically did so. The shah rescinded the concession within the year, but it did not help him and in 1896 he was assassinated. The Qajars continued to face colonial exploitation; in something which will shape Iran's history William Knox D'Arcy in 1909 was granted oil concessions forming the Anglo-Persiab Oil Company, now called BP. Seeing revolution in 1905 break out in Russia protests broke out demanding economic equality, education, and democracy. From 1906 to 1911 a small scale civil war broke out over whether Iran would have a <i>Madjles</i>, a parliament. Throughout the First World War it would be occupied by the Allied powers to secure their access to the oilfields, and the second <i>Madjles </i>was dissolved. Within a decade the Qajar dynasty was ousted in favour of Reza Khan Pahlavi, a colonel in the Cossack Brigade.<br />
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<b>Abdul Hamid and the Young Turks</b><br />
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The end of the Tanzimat was followed by decades of authoritarian rule by Sultan Abdul Hamid, known as 'the Butcher' or 'Red Sultan' for his cracking down on nationalist and reformist/republican movements. The cautious advocacy of secularism, 'Ottomanism' or 'laicism', of the Tanzimat was replaced by an advocacy of Pan-Islam to work for him domestically and internationally. The Ottoman sultan also claimed the title of caliph, so he emphasised this to ensure loyalty to him from his Muslim subjects and as a bargaining chip with foreign powers. There was an implication that, as caliph, he could encourage revolts in their Muslim-majority colonies, so they had to give him concessions. To show that he was a representative of Pan-Islam, but also continuing some Tanzimat policies, the Hijaz railway was constructed connecting Medina to Damascus, and 51 new secondary schools were constructed in the Asian provinces. However, there were subtle limits to this. The schools were taught along European lines and were centralised - this limited the impact religious institutions had on education. Railways were also constructed connecting Istanbul to Vienna creating the renowned 'Oriental Express', and ties were created with Germany. A Berlin-to-Baghdad railroad was formed as a result, and Kaiser Wilhelm II even performed two state visits. However, Abdul Hamid was not known for peaceful rule. Political opponents were often forced to go into exile to avoid repression, and the CUP were largely based elsewhere until the 1900s. Nationalism also resulted in brutality. Despite his advocacy for Pan-Islam, Arabs became distrustful of Ottoman rule when Abdul Hamid replaced influential Arabic families who were pro-Tanzimat with his own supporters - something seen as 'Turkifying' the Arabic areas. Throughout the 1890s Armenian nationalist uprisings resulted in Abdul Hamid massacring Armenian villages, and Greece declared war in 1897 thanks to the repression of an uprising on Crete. He was also almost assassinated in 1905 by Armenian nationalists. His repression led to the growth of nationalism across the empire - when the First World War broke out Arabs soon revolted to create their own state and Armenians also attempted to ally Russian troops.<br />
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Troops stationed in Salonika, the Third Army, were sympathetic to the CUP and opposed the sultan, so they staged a revolt in 1908 inspired by Ottomanism. Abdul Hamid won some support back for allowing elections, a demand of the troops, but a counterrevolution broke out to restore the sultan's power. The Third Army formally deposed him, and to keep with Ottomanism, sent a delegation consisting of two Turks, an Armenian, and Jewish officer were sent to inform the sultan of his deposition. However, the CUP was heavily divided between liberals and conservatives which was made worse when Balkan states in 1912 took over the European lands. In 1913, a triumvirate under Enver, Talat, and Jamal Pasha (they were unrelated, until the Ataturk era your job title was your family name), took control. They would move between authoritarianism and reformism which helps explain why it became to embrace a specifically Turkish identity. For example, Arabs saw the replacement of Hamidian era notable Arabic families as further attempts to Turkify the empire. Through this, we can see why in the First World War they began seeing the Armenian, Greek, and Assyrian population as a fifth column beginning a genocide - a topic for a later post.<br />
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<b>Aftermath and Conclusion</b><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Women in Egypt, 1919</td></tr>
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The events which we have discussed today have set the stage for the Middle East's history up until today. Nationalism would lead to genocide of Armenians and the breaking up of the Ottoman Empire, however, the legacy of European intervention meant that many of the former parts of the empire became colonies. The aspirations of Arab nationalists to create a united Arabic nation was squashed by the Sykes-Picot Agreement dividing the area between British and French colonies - these colonies would later be further divided. The reformist movements would bring to power new movements which would shape today. The new Pahlavi dynasty in Iran would continue to grant foreign powers concessions spurring an anti-imperialist movement - from both Leftists and Islamic forces (sometimes they were the same). From the CUP emerged the reformist Mustafa Kemal, later known as Ataturk, and, according to Serif Mardin, would complete the ideas set forth in the Tanzimat. Since then the divide between Kemalism and its opponents have been a characteristic of Turkish thought. The Middle East as we know it began to take shape during this period, for better or for worse.<br />
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The sources I have used are as follows:<br />
-William Cleveland and Martin Bunton, <i>A History of the Modern Middle East</i>, Sixth Edition, (Boulder, CO: 2016)<br />
-Albert Hourani, <i>A History of the Arab Peoples</i>, (London: 1991)<br />
-Kumari Jayawardena, <i>Feminism and Nationalism in the Third World</i>, (London: 1986)<br />
-Betty Anderson, <i>A History of the Modern Middle East: Rulers, Rebels and Rogues</i>, (Stanford, CA: 2016)<br />
-Timothy Mitchell, <i>Colonising Egypt</i>, (Berkeley, CA: 1988)<br />
-Ervand Abrahamian, <i>A History of Modern Iran</i>, (Cambridge: 2008)<br />
-Serif Mardin, 'Ideology and Religion in the Turkish Revolution', <i>International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies</i>, 2:2, (1971), 197-211<br />
-Nicole Pope and Hugh Pope, <i>Turkey Unveiled: A History of Modern Turkey</i>, (Woodstock, NY: 2004)<br />
-Yaseen Noorani, <i>Culture and Hegemony in the Colonial Middle East</i>, (New York, NY: 2010)<br />
-John Galbraith and Afaf Latfi al-Sayyid-Marsat, 'The British Occupation of Egypt: Another View,' <i>International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies</i>, 9:4, (1978), 471-488<br />
-A.G. Hopkins, 'The Victorians and Africa: A Reconsideration of the Occupation of Egypt, 1882,' <i>The Journal of African History</i>, 27:2, (1986), 363-391<br />
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Thank you for reading, and next time we'll be looking at settler colonialism in Australia and New Zealand. For other World History posts we have a list <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/p/world-history.html">here</a>, and for future blog updates please see our <a href="https://www.facebook.com/TwibyHistoryGeekStuff/">Facebook</a> or catch me on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/lewistwiby?lang=en">@LewisTwiby</a>.</div>
Lewis Twibyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03565517444017278980noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6707020941988899278.post-31250872653243005662020-01-12T04:23:00.001-08:002020-01-12T04:23:13.275-08:00The Quagga and Colonialism<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i>This article was first published by Retrospect Journal on 02/12/2019, and can be read <a href="https://retrospectjournal.com/2019/12/02/the-quagga-and-colonialism/">here</a>.</i></div>
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On 12 August 1883 the last known quagga died in captivity in Amsterdam Zoo, surveys could find no traces of quagga in the wild confirming its extinction. Long thought to be a species of zebra, DNA tests in the 1980s found it to be a subspecies, it was once common across the plains of what would become South Africa. Unlike other infamous cases of animals being driven to extinction by human activity, most notably the moa of New Zealand and dodo of Mauritius, quagga had lived alongside humans for millennia. In fact, the name ‘quagga’ partially comes from the local Khoikhoi name. Instead the extinction of the quagga was deeply entwined with imperial culture and the formation of settler rule in South Africa.</div>
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From the early-1600s Dutch settlers created colonies on the southern coast of what would become South Africa. From 1795 the British took over the colony to secure shipping routes to India, and clashes began between the Dutch and British settlers. To avoid British rule the Dutch farmers began what has since been known as the ‘Great Trek’ after 1836; these ‘voortrekkers’ would later become a key part of Afrikaner national identity, especially as British rule tried to reassert itself over the voortrekkers. The white settlers claimed they were pushing into ‘free’ land where they could make a new start, however, this claim was at the expense of Africans. Although there was no intensive sedentary farming, that did not mean that the land was actually unclaimed. Various African peoples made claim to the lands hosting a range of different states and economic structures ranging from pastoralists to small-scale farming to the expansionist Zulu Empire. These voortrekkers enslaved or displaced Africans from their land, and helped destabilise the Zulu Empire to prevent them from being a threat. </div>
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The arrival of Europeans changed how the environment was treated. Although it is important not to fetishize pre-colonial land usage, wide-scale pastoralism had caused increased pressure on the land in Zulu and Xhosa communities, but it is important to stress how land usage shifted dramatically. Just as in the American West, land areas of the southern African land were divided between individual farms – of varying sizes – which limited where wild animals could move. For herding animals, like the quagga, wide areas are needed so they have plenty of food to eat without destroying the local area – millions of zebra and wildebeest make the trek from the Serengeti in Tanzania to the Masai Mara in Kenya for this reason every year. Herds of quagga, therefore, tried to go on their regular grazing grounds but were faced with Boer farms. To prevent the quagga from competing with their own grazing herds, or from eating their own crops, farmers resorted to shooting stray herds of quagga. Quagga meat was also a good way to get quick food without killing off a possibly prized animal, and their skins could be sold for extra funds.</div>
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At the same time, the quagga became a prized animal for menageries back in the metropole. The quagga’s unique skin made it an interesting addition for any wealthy elite’s personal collection – Cusworth Hall in my own town of Doncaster even had quagga grazing on its grounds in the 1700s. When the first zoological gardens started emerging in the 1820s, such as London Zoo, quaggas were in high demand for their appearance and for colonial experiments. Naturalists hoped to breed quaggas with horses to create a new species that could be used in both Europe and Africa. There is also an underlying colonial ideology about why exotic animals were in demand for zoos and menageries. As argued by Harriet Ratvo, having a seemingly rare, unique, or exotic animal was part of a wider imperial power dynamic – if you could have an animal from a colonised region it showed by the power of empire and your own wealth. It showed Britain’s power to move an animal across the world, and the owner’s importance by engaging in this power play.</div>
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However, many zoos were unequipped to look after exotic animals initially, and it was not uncommon for new animals to die within a year. London Zoo’s A.D. Bartlett, who oversaw the animal population during the late-nineteenth century, wrote how they had to invest a lot to look after elephants and rhinos because they were hard to get, but as monkeys were cheap to obtain, they did not have to worry in case they died. Initially the quagga was viewed this way. Their large herd sizes and apparent abundancy meant that they were seen as dispensable, but still sought after, animals. Furthermore, brutal capture and transport of animals meant that many more had to be caught than what was needed due to high mortality.</div>
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These factors mentioned are what drove the quagga to extinction. Demand to fill zoos in Europe, and policies of extermination to preserve farms in Africa, meant that quagga numbers quickly dwindled. As they were only found in southern Africa it meant that the population rapidly went extinct – although common, they were only common in one area. London Zoo’s single mare was photographed five times between the 1860s and 1870s before she died by the zoo’s chief photographer Frederick York. The rapid extinction of the quagga meant that they are the only photos of a living quagga. The last known wild quagga was shot in 1878, and when the last one died in captivity in 1883 the zoo requested hunters find another one not realising how quickly it had gone extinct. Albeit, locally all zebras were referred to as ‘quaggas’ which may have caused the confusion. Thanks to colonial settlement and exploitation the quagga had gone extinct.</div>
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Studying the quagga shows the various ways colonialism impacted colonised societies. Unfortunately, the quagga was not the only case of settler colonialism driving animals to extinction – passenger pigeons, thylacines, and almost the bison suffered the same fate. The quagga offers a warning for the future. Neo-colonialism means the natural world is being destroyed in order to fund the economies of the global north threatening both humans and nature. Colonialism very likely will drive orang-utans, macaws, and caimans, just to name a few, to extinction.</div>
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Lewis Twibyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03565517444017278980noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6707020941988899278.post-71187911533962769912020-01-05T07:31:00.001-08:002020-01-05T07:31:18.529-08:00Left-Wing and the 'Other' History: The Zapatistas<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i>*Part of this post has been adapted from an essay written by myself for the University of Edinburgh</i></div>
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On January 1 1994 in the forests of Chiapas, southern Mexico an uprising took place. An armed libertarian socialist group calling themselves the Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional, (the Zapatista National Liberation Army), better known as the EZLN, or the Zapatistas. Originating as a white or mestizo guerrilla movement in 1983 they quickly evolved into a movement specifically fighting for indigenous and women's rights - they believed, and still do, that the liberation of oppressed groups can be done through socialism. Today we will be taking a quick look at the EZLN's history, and what they believe.</div>
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<b>Origins </b></div>
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Chiapas is one of the most southernmost states in Mexico, bordering Guatemala, and was deeply divided. Despite being rich in natural resources with good farmland most of the population were landless and in poverty. This was heavily racialised as well. Despite most of the population being indigenous and having a long history of resistance to exclusion, quoting Philip Russell, ‘for centuries, Indians and non-Indians have occupied separate domains’. The distance between neighbouring communities lends itself to othering – a lack of understanding leads to the reinforcement of stereotypes – but what reinforced the subalternity of Chiapas’ indigenous population was exclusion from hegemonic society through poverty and racism. In 1990 30% of the adult population was illiterate, 34.9% had no access to electricity, 41.1% of workers relied on more than one minimum wage, and in the town of La Realidad a fifth of children died of curable diseases. As these figures disproportionally affected indigenous communities this led to them becoming subalterns. Illiteracy prevents communities from engaging in wider civic society while low paid jobs and a lack of access to basic needs solidifies this exclusion. Indigenous communities cannot break their subalternity when basic rights to education, employment, and health care have already been denied to them, so access to these rights become the greater concern. These issues become accentuated by racism. A member of the Regional Union of Craftswomen of Chiapas, formed after the Zapatista Uprising, stated that ‘<i>they</i> [white and mestizo Mexicans] <i>make fun of indígenas who come to school in their traditional clothes</i>’. The disparaging of indigenous clothing, and by extension culture, was due to their exclusion from accepted cultural hegemony – even if they could attend school they were still objectified as an ‘outsider’. </div>
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Chiapas, however, had a long history of indigenous resistance dating as far back as to 1712 when indigenous peoples constantly tried to fight Spanish colonialism. The Zapatistas emerged as part of this long history of resistance, and can be firmly seen in their own name - 'Zapatista' was the name of the Mexican Revolution's radical revolutionary Emiliano Zapata. According to the Zapatistas, the practice something called 'neozapatismo' - a political philosophy emphasising liberation, collectivisation, radical democracy, feminism, and indigenous liberation. Originally, the EZLN were not a movement for specifically women and indigenous rights, instead they emerged in Mexico City as a leftist guerrilla movement. Mainly white and mestizo students went to Chiapas, seeing it as Mexico's poorest region, with the intention of organising the local people. However, the reality on the ground changed drastically what they aims were. Poverty and oppression were intrinsically linked to gender and race, and the actions of indigenous activists helped shape the early EZLN. For example, in 1973 the First Indian Congress of Chiapas was formed. This aimed to bring activists together in order to implement education in indigenous languages; prevent the increasing commercialisation of Chiapas's main crop, coffee; and land redistribution for the primarily indigenous tenant farmers. A shift therefore happened. The guerrilla movement started moving towards indigenous liberation. Although the EZLN's most famous spokesperson is a white, or mestizo, figure with subcomandante Marcos, now called subcomandante Galeano, indigenous people started coming to the forefront. Marcos himself said that their most important weapon was the Tzotzil-speaking woman Comandante Ramona. Even the name EZLN came from this shift of perspective.</div>
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<b>The Uprising</b></div>
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Through the 1980s neoliberalism started becoming the accepted economic policy across the world, and in North America this led to the creation of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). This aimed to increasingly integrate the economies of the US, Canada, and Mexico by removing tariffs, eliminating barriers to trade, and making investment easier. However, this would have a devastating consequence on the poorest in society, especially in Mexico - labour laws were repealed and austerity measures were implemented as they were seen as inhibiting investment. This particularly affected the indigenous peoples of Chiapas as it meant the removal of Article 27 of the Constitution. Article 27 kept land reform and prevented foreign capitalists from owning Mexican resources - this revocation allowed foreign investors to take Chiapas's land further disenfranchising the landless. As a result, the EZLN began to act. In 1993 they issued the Lacandon Declaration, the first of several, declaring the illigetimacy of the government, and governmental reforms inspired by Emiliano Zapata's Plan of Ayala (1911). The day that NAFTA came into being, January 1 1994, the Zapatistas rose up. Coming from the Lacandon forest the Zapatistas captured the towns of Ocosingo, Las Margaritas, Altamirano, and San Cristobal de las Casas. The surprise uprising took the world by storm. Commentators said that the Mexican president 'went to sleep in a First World country' on New Years Eve and 'woke up in a Third World country' on New Years Day. </div>
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The masked wearing, horse-riding insurgents caught international renown. Particularly, subcomandante Marcos won attention for his openness to interviews, charm, and knowledge of languages (he could speak Spanish, English, and two native languages). The high presence of women, and especially indigenous women, in the movement gave the impression that they practised what they preached - the capture of the capital of San Cristobal was done by Ana María, a Tzotzil-speaking woman. The rebellion caused a crisis for the Mexican government - a subaltern group had managed to unexpectedly rise up against their authority. Soon peace overtures were made, and the EZLN relied on a sympathetic bishop Samuel Ruiz Garcia to help negotiate.</div>
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<i>*The next three sections will be taken from the aforementioned essay.</i></div>
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<b>Indigenous Peoples and the EZLN</b></div>
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Perhaps the most central aspect of Zapatista rhetoric since 1994 has been the emancipation of indigenous Mexicans. The EZLN’s most famous spokesperson, Subcomandante Marcos (now Galeano), although not indigenous himself, has regularly evoked the image of liberating indigenous peoples in his writings. For example, in 1995 he wrote that thanks to EZLN the cost of indigenous blood was no longer ‘<i>worth less than the backyard bird</i>’ and that they ‘<i>rose up so as not to live on their knees anymore</i>’. Marcos has presented the EZLN as preventing the further abuse of indigenous peoples, but he has gone beyond this by stating that ‘they rose up’. Instead of the EZLN fighting for indigenous communities, Marcos has presented the EZLN as fighting with indigenous communities. A regular feature of Zapatistas rhetoric since 1994 is the presentation that the EZLN answers to its communities. Two decades after the initial uprising EZLN officer Subcomandante Moises still stated that ‘The EZLN cannot interfere in [a] community’s life…Here, the people rule, while the government merely obeys’. As communities had been historically excluded from political hegemony the logic behind these statements can be explained through subalternity. While the Mexican government ruled Chiapas, the Zapatistas have presented themselves as actually giving a voice to the ‘other’ – the subaltern guides their policy instead of the powerful guiding the subaltern. Similarly, in March 1994 the EZLN stated the reasons for their uprising was ‘<i>The unbearable injustices and violations of our human rights as indigenous people and impoverished campesinos</i>’, and ‘<i>More than sixty years of lies, deceptions, promises, and imposed governments</i>’. The protection of indigenous rights is central to these demands, but by stating ‘our’ rights highlights Zapatista usage of the subaltern; they presented themselves as not just fighting for indigenous communities, but as members of the communities.</div>
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The Zapatistas have made attempts to practically represent and emancipate indigenous communities. As stated by anthropologist Lynn Stephen, who had worked in EZLN Muncipialities, ‘<i>By 1994, the EZLN insurgents were indigenous people of Chiapas commanded from Chiapas</i>’ which matches with Marcos’ own assertion on the day of the uprising that ‘<i>The leaders are mostly indigenous</i>’. As indigenous Chiapans were leading the EZLN this ensures that the ‘other’ was not used just for rhetoric. Furthermore, by December 1994 several villages and ejidos (communal land) joined with Zapatistas to form the ‘Autonomous Municipalities’ rejecting government control. The aim of the municipalities was to grant indigenous communities: autonomy; direct democracy; and access to land, education, and health care. We see a clear attempt to implement the March demands independently from the central government whom they mistrusted. As the ‘othered’ were crafting the Autonomous Municipalities we see the subaltern trying to break the oppression that came with being subaltern – they could now have access to land and education previously denied to them. This was expanded in August 2003 when the Municipalities were replaced with the ‘Caracoles’ (Snails) where they would ‘move slowly but forward’, as well as making the EZLN more accountable to local communities. The legacy of misrule and subjugation has influenced how the EZLN viewed itself and how it wished to implement its policies – just as in their rhetoric they saw a desire to serve the communities, ‘<i>mandar obeciendo</i>’ (to command by obeying). The Municipalities and Caracoles were constructed in order to create direct contact between the Zapatista leadership and local communities, highlighting the importance of the subaltern. As indigenous peoples had been ruled by an exclusionary state the EZLN aimed to include subaltern communities into society.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgFNVT23BqZfvl48aN2hY9uHE9tZ1dMDgayaIfrwFot-AIRaXMOS6J-ubtUCUm2MOJRL_SAwwhi37flnQbIAYBy29KpGYnaHFPLI__PJipDcj8v4MZFh-MNtsYRvxTutRoydTyAD9T5Usc6/s1600/10908460265e4a5b1ad0f095722365f4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="529" data-original-width="800" height="211" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgFNVT23BqZfvl48aN2hY9uHE9tZ1dMDgayaIfrwFot-AIRaXMOS6J-ubtUCUm2MOJRL_SAwwhi37flnQbIAYBy29KpGYnaHFPLI__PJipDcj8v4MZFh-MNtsYRvxTutRoydTyAD9T5Usc6/s320/10908460265e4a5b1ad0f095722365f4.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A Caracoles mural</td></tr>
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Furthermore, the EZLN has placed great emphasis on the Revolutionary Indigenous Clandestine Committee (CCRI) – a civilian body elected in popular assemblies, representing regions and ethnicities, and had greater authority than the Zapatista military command. For the Zapatistas, the CCRI is a practical attempt to institute direct democracy and engage with local communities. Civilians ordered militias, and indigenous peoples could decide who encompassed the CCRI; democracy at a local level offered a chance for subaltern communities to actively engage in policy making. Since 1994 the Zapatistas ostensibly have subordinated themselves to civilian leadership. For example, the decision to put forward an indigenous woman, Marichuy, in the 2018 general election was due to the civilian-ran National Indigenous Congress (CNI) in 2016 seeing rebellion as not achieving the goals of 1994. Although Galeano supported this measure it is important to note that it was the CNI, not the EZLN, who put forward this plan. As the Zapatistas were willing to engage in electoral politics and forsake armed revolt at the request of civilians it highlights how important the subaltern is in determining Zapatista policy. As civilians were guiding the policies of the Zapatistas the declaration of <i>mandar obeciendo</i> does not seem like empty rhetoric – it appears that the ‘other’ was genuinely influencing the EZLN.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjMjel4K8jq1-hKoBuRT-4UVPLnbeiwaXouDH10kk3uwkQfnX7qMRB2RT5YBZxKIbPqKquqv6YwMFl6QMhExQeAjXPHY38KUpLXAPwrCzuAGv3CXMMPzVMTlLnkpp0lHlQdL2PUc85NlZDB/s1600/Comandanta_Ramona_by_bastian.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1171" data-original-width="820" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjMjel4K8jq1-hKoBuRT-4UVPLnbeiwaXouDH10kk3uwkQfnX7qMRB2RT5YBZxKIbPqKquqv6YwMFl6QMhExQeAjXPHY38KUpLXAPwrCzuAGv3CXMMPzVMTlLnkpp0lHlQdL2PUc85NlZDB/s320/Comandanta_Ramona_by_bastian.jpg" width="224" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Comandante Ramona</td></tr>
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However, there are important limits to the rhetoric and actions concerning indigenous peoples. The centrality of Marcos is testament to this. Marcos is not indigenous, and many of the EZLN’s major comandantes, most notably Ramona, ‘<i>shy away from interviews because their native tongue is Tzotzil</i>’. Lynn Stephen has further placed emphasis on Marcos’ own politics and love of history in influencing the ideas of the Zapatistas, specifically when he stated, ‘<i>I went to teach what the people wanted: literacy and Mexican history’</i>. Marcos does not lead the Zapatistas, hence why he is known as ‘subcomandante’ and not ‘comandante’, but the reason for his centrality to the movement links to the subaltern nature of the EZLN. In his own words, he is a ‘person who comes from an urban culture, one of the world’s biggest cities, with a university education’ where Chiapas was ‘another planet’ to him initially compared to other Zapatista figures, most notably Ramona, who were rural and indigenous. As Marcos came from the hegemonic culture he was more acceptable to Mexican society compared to a figure like Ramona, so he became the movement’s figurehead. The subalternity of the EZLN comandantes meant that they could not be legitimate in the eyes of the public, whereas the educated and non-indigenous could be used to grant them legitimacy. Consequently, the centrality of Marcos reinforced the subaltern rhetoric which the Zapatistas aimed to challenge – as they were indigenous, they had to use Marcos to be heard. </div>
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Moreover, in the early stages of the uprising, insurgents in majority indigenous cities, like Oxchuc, came from wealthier families. Although this has since changed, the initial domination of wealthier insurgents in the urban ranks of the Zapatistas further highlights the inability to fully strike against subalternity. Wealthier individuals had the mobility and agency to engage with the armed movement compared to their poorer neighbours who could not afford to engage in the uncertainty of an armed rebellion. This is further seen with the initial peace talks at San Andres in 1996. In violation of the ceasefire the military and paramilitary groups, particularly Paz y Justicia, increased their presence in Chiapas and attacked pro-Zapatista villages. Unwilling to risk the peace talks the Zapatistas gave little aid and only threatened to pull out of the talks if the abuses against civilians continued. The inability to protect civilians, and the reliance on the state to accept the ceasefire, further highlights how the Zapatistas did not fully protect indigenous communities. Their own subaltern nature meant that the Mexican government felt that it could engage in human rights abuses, and break the terms of the ceasefire, as the EZLN could only look on. Prioritising peace with those with hegemonic power was an acquiescence of their own failing to break the state’s hegemony; they had only managed to briefly threaten the government and sustained resistance was not possible. Consequently, the military could continue brutalising communities regardless of Zapatista protests.</div>
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<b>Women and the EZLN</b></div>
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Another key aspect to Zapatista identity is their rhetoric concerning women’s emancipation, and like with indigeneity, women have played an integral role in the EZLN. During the initial uprising it was Major Ana María who took the city hall of San Cristobal, one of Chiapas’ largest cities, and the CCRI itself was formed by Comandante Ramona. Furthermore, it was Ramona who attended the San Andres talks in 1996 as ‘<i>The Zapatistas say that Ramona, not Marcos, is their most ferocious weapon</i>’. The presence of indigenous women, both Ramona and Ana María were Tzotzil, in the highest positions of the Zapatistas indicates a clear attempt to emancipate subaltern communities. As women were able to physically lead the EZLN, including a body which superseded the movement’s armed wing, their claims of emancipating women do not become empty rhetoric. This is further seen in the twenty-ninth demand of the EZLN, the ‘Indigenous women’s petition’, which included demands that could practically alter the life of Chiapan women including day-cares and schools for women. In these demands the Zapatistas have directly stated how they wish to dismantle patriarchal structures in order to emancipate subaltern women. Requests for day-cares, schools, and services to create co-operatives aimed to democratise domesticity and allow women to leave the domestic sphere, something which had historically reinforced patriarchy. During the ‘Other Campaign’ in 2005 – an attempt by the EZLN to create a united national alliance – Ramona was put forward as the one to represent the movement. Ramona was to practically and symbolically show the importance of women in the EZLN; her existence in the movement was to show a rejection of patriarchy. The influence of women in the Zapatista leadership are key to understanding why this became a desire – coming from subaltern communities they understood what was stripping them of agency. </div>
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Women further engaged with opportunities offered by the Zapatista uprising – primarily to challenge racism and misogyny which had forced them into a subaltern status. A part of this was due to a long history of indigenous female resistance to repression – in 1994, independent from the EZLN, indigenous women organised the Congress of Indigenous and Peasant Women of Chiapas in order to represent themselves. Consequently, the emancipatory language of the EZLN strengthened women’s attempts to challenge their own subalternity. For example, Natalia, in the EZLN aligned Union of Craftswomen of Chiapas, argued that just a year after the rising ‘<i>They</i> [the authorities] <i>treat us badly. But…there is more respect. Because now the indigenas know their rights</i>’. This partially could be explained by Natalia trying to show the benefits of the EZLN for the international community, but a desire to do so highlights subaltern support for the Zapatistas. In her interview Natalia felt that the EZLN were capable of representing women’s rights, and, slowly, bring about equality. Furthermore, in 1998 X’oyep women were visibly present at pro-Zapatista protests against increased military presence in Chiapas. Women were willing to directly challenge the instrument of state repression in support of the Zapatistas showing that women actively engaged with the rhetoric of the EZLN. The urge to break subalternity helped influence women in directly defending those whom they believed would guarantee their own emancipation. As a result, the EZLN’s usage of the subaltern encouraged resistance against hegemonic power.</div>
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However, particularly in the first decade of the uprising, there was a notable gap between rhetoric and action. As argued by Hilary Klein, figures including Ana María and Ramona, were exceptions due to the continued presence of machismo which reinforced patriarchy. This is shown by the number of women delegates to the National Democratic Convention in 1995 – only 19 out of 100. Despite calls for the emancipation of women the Zapatistas failed themselves to represent women in their own leadership, and calls into question some of their demands. It is not clear who wrote the women’s petition, and although it was progressive it still reinforced the subalternity of women. The requests for day-cares and ovens for bakeries were specifically in the women’s petition and not the wider demands – for the EZLN childcare and cooking were still viewed as jobs for women. Mercedes Olivera found, through interviews with Zapatista women, that while pregnant women were expected to leave ranks in order to care for their child, new fathers were allowed to remain. Continued subalternity of women meant that a gap emerged between action and rhetoric – the idea that women were the natural caregivers meant that, even in a supposed subaltern uprising, patriarchal views remained unchallenged. As figures like Ramona were exceptions in the EZLN leadership, this meant that rhetoric and policy were largely constructed by men, so hypocritical actions could occur without thorough questioning further marginalising Zapatista women. Although Marcos has shown his support for women taking lead roles, as seen in his statement that without women history ‘<i>is nothing more than a badly-made fable</i>’, his presence indirectly reinforces subordination of women. Like with indigeneity, Marcos is thrust into public spotlight to grant legitimacy to the movement due to his own limited subaltern identity. The EZLN had the assumption that an indigenous woman, like Ramona, could not be the figurehead for the movement, so indirectly showed how degrading attitudes towards the subaltern continued in the EZLN’s ranks. </div>
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However, since 2004 (when the EZLN looked at their actions after a decade of revolution) younger women have used their own subalternity, and the rhetoric of the Zapatistas, to challenge machismo within the EZLN’s ranks. For example, a Tojolabal woman in 2004 told Olivera that she felt bold enough to reject men if they wanted her to abandon her career in education. This offers two insights: firstly, machismo continued despite a decade of the uprising; and secondly, the policies of the Zapatistas had encouraged women to become independent. Gaps between rhetoric and action, and the language of the EZLN, gave women the agency to challenge the continuation of their own oppression. In 2007, the Zapatistas formed a panel discussion for 200 women to express their desires, and criticisms, where men were barred from talking, and were asked to cook and clean if they wished to take part. Women made their own spaces to discuss their own oppression, with no intervention from men, thanks to the idea of the subaltern. Zapatista rhetoric on autonomy created an avenue for women to express their own criticisms of misogyny in the EZLN, and a way for them to criticise their own subalternity. The idea of the subaltern, therefore, allowed the subaltern to express their existence. Similar to how the Municipalities and Caracoles aimed to grant autonomy for indigenous communities, the opportunities of self-rule gave women an opportunity to exercise their agency. Rosa Isabel of the Production Commission in 2007 stated that, ‘Working together in the women’s collective is where we get over the fear and embarrassment that we feel’. This statement may have been made to show outside observers the success of the Zapatistas, but viewed uncritically it indicates how the idea of liberating the subaltern allowed women to liberate themselves. Working independent from women it shattered notions of female inferiority and limitations to domesticity. By creating their own agency women managed to actively challenge the patriarchal social structures which made them subalterns.</div>
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<b>Reaction to the EZLN</b></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Aftermath of the Acteal Massacre</td></tr>
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The reaction to the Zapatistas by the Mexican state is intrinsically linked to the image of the subaltern which they have constructed. As argued by Antonio Gramsci, a ‘movement of the subaltern classes is accompanied by a reactionary movement…of the dominant class’. In this case the Mexican state’s ‘reactionary movement’ was characterised by military and paramilitary violence, and the delegitimising of the movement – both actions were rooted in attitudes towards subalterns. The military and paramilitary groups, principally Paz y Justicia, reacted to the movement by primarily attacking unarmed, but pro-Zapatista, civilians. The most famous of these killings was the Acteal Massacre where 45 people, including children, of a pacifist group, Los Abejas, were shot on December 22, 1997 by the government backed paramilitary Mascara Roja. As Los Abejas supported the Zapatistas, but not the armed uprising, they were targeted by Mascara Roja. As Los Abejas were pro-Zapatista and pacifist Tzotzils their subaltern nature made them a target for reactionary repression. Their indigeneity meant that they were already victims of repression, while their pacifism was seen as Los Abejas lacking agency making them ‘ideal’ targets. As the violent EZLN were seen as having agency, so were not targeted, Los Abejas’ pacifism was seen as a safe way to attack the Zapatistas. Furthermore, state-sanctioned repression disproportionally affected those ‘othered’ through multiple ways. The vast majority of the 6,000 people displaced by military attacks were poor women who were also regularly subjected to sexual assault as ‘punishment’ for association with Zapatistas. Poor, indigenous women were so excluded from political hegemony that they were viewed as entirely lacking agency. It became acceptable for the military to target indigenous women as they lacked a voice to make their repression heard by those who could make the military accountable for their actions.</div>
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According to Bill Weinberg, the ruling Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) in 1996 hoped that the Zapatistas would break the ceasefire so began increasing military presence and the funding of paramilitaries in Chiapas. A subaltern uprising, especially when Mexico was positioning itself as a member of the ‘First World’ for its involvement in NAFTA, was incredibly damaging for the hegemonic structure of society. Furthermore, a subaltern rising had managed to bring the Mexican state to negotiation with the intention of radically changing indigenous life in Mexico. This helps explain the willingness of the PRI to continue harsh retaliation against the Zapatistas, or fund others to work on their behalf – an anonymous Paz y Justicia member alleged that ‘<i>There was an agreement for 4,600 pesos…</i>[with] <i>The Mexican army and Public Safety</i>’. The EZLN had not only embarrassed Mexico internationally by rising on the day that NAFTA came into being, but by directly challenging state power as apparent subalterns had brought the state into negotiations. A hegemonic structure built on the subordination of indigenous communities and women could not remain intact in the face of subaltern agency. When a symbolic constitutional amendment was passed in 2001, due to the San Andres talks, to avoid the inevitable criticisms from the EZLN president Vicente Fox went as far as to avoid mentioning the Zapatistas entirely in his speech concerning the passing of the act. This was largely done to avoid legitimising the EZLN – by not mentioning the Zapatistas the amendment could be presented as an act willingly performed by the state. However, as even a symbolic amendment was forced by a subaltern guerrilla group into existence, acknowledgement of said group would fully expose the weakness of traditional hegemony. If apparently ‘voiceless’ peoples were capable of changing structures the entire system could, in turn, be challenged.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Samuel Ruiz</td></tr>
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In the first decade of the uprising a recurring theme from state, or pro-state, media were attempts to downplay the subaltern nature and rhetoric of the EZLN. President Carlos Salinas in 1994 stated that, ‘<i>This is not an Indian uprising, but the action of a violent armed group</i>’, whereas the conservative paper <i>Diario El Dia</i> accused bishop Samuel Ruiz of being the ‘<i>Red Bishop</i>’ who was ‘fermenting rebellion’ in league with communists. One explanation for this is a standard attempt to delegitimise the EZLN and shift causation away from the state – if the uprising can be blamed on a small group of far-left radicals then inequality in Chiapas can safely be ignored. By looking at the subaltern we see a new, indirect reason for blaming the uprising on a small group manipulated by the local bishop. Decades of disenfranchisement had forced indigenous communities and women from accepted socio-political hegemony, and with the overlooking of a tradition of resistance these subaltern communities were consequently seen as being silent. Hence, an apparently sudden uprising was seemingly unthinkable for those within the hegemonic sphere.</div>
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A recurring aspect of anti-Zapatista rhetoric in the 1990s was that the group was made up of, or being manipulated by, foreign and non-indigenous agents. For example, in 1994 labour leader Fidel Velázquez blamed ‘<i>Peruvians, Nicaraguans, Guatemalans and Salvadorans</i>’ and the social-democratic Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) for the uprising. As late as 1998 this narrative was being repeated. On February 13 journalist Lolita de Vega was chased away from the Autonomous Municipality of La Realidad, and she put the blame on foreigners ‘<i>manipulating our Indians</i>’. The Zapatistas did encourage both national and international leftists to Chiapas to report on the Rising – the majority of non-Zapatista sources used in this post was part of this initial interest, such as Nettie Wild’s 1998 documentary, <i>A Place Called Chiapas</i>. This was used by pro-state media to paint the Zapatistas as a new ‘other’. Instead of indigenous Mexicans they were instead foreigners, or their willing dupes, working to undermine Mexico. Opponents of the EZLN used a xenophobic fear of the foreign other to try and discredit the movement – suppression of Mexico’s subalterns was unacceptable, but suppressing foreign infiltrators was. </div>
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Furthermore, this is a continuation of the same rhetoric which blamed Bishop Ruiz for the uprising. Through a wilful misunderstanding of Chiapan history, and centuries of silencing of indigenous peoples and women, meant that Chiapas’ subalterns were seen as passive and unable to exert agency. Hence, we see the reaffirmation of the view of the passive subaltern – left-wing supporters of the Zapatistas were recast as their masters. De Vega’s choice of words was particularly telling – by stating ‘our Indians’ it implies that Chiapas’ indigenous population were part of Mexican society until the EZLN took them away. By casting the Zapatistas as rejecting Mexico there was a clear intent to further justify their subalternity; they held allegiances elsewhere. It is telling that the same year that de Vega claimed that foreigners were behind the EZLN, Nettie Wild was stopped by a state-ran ‘immigration checkpoint’ – the state itself was crafting the EZLN as being a foreign body. By casting the Zapatistas as foreign through rhetoric and action it showed the state’s view on the subaltern – when attempts were made to break political hegemony they were seen as entirely rejecting Mexico.</div>
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<b>The Other Campaign and After</b></div>
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Shortly after the decade anniversary the EZLN planned a new campaign: The Other Campaign. We have already discussed this campaign briefly, but it is worth discussing it here. To expand the liberatory rhetoric the EZLN sent Marcos and Ramona across Mexico to create alliances with a wide range of groups. These included LGBTQ+ rights advocates, student protesters, trade unions, feminists, indigenous activists outside of Chiapas, factory workers, peasants, prostitutes, and teachers. Marcos said the aim was '<i>to listen to the simple and humble people who struggle</i>', but they also hoped for a countrywide campaign which could make the government rewrite the constitution. Unfortunately, since then there has only been the one campaign, and for over a decade the EZLN has largely focused on Chiapas. Albeit, they were setback by Ramona's tragic passing due to cancer. However, they have continued to work towards liberating local peoples, and this last decade have focused on challenging long-standing sexism in their ranks. In 2017 they broke their two-decade long opposition to electoral politics by sending Marichuy, a Nahua woman, to run for president. This exposure allowed them to expand into eleven new districts at the end of 2019, and, just a few days into 2020 they have already declared their intention to prevent mega-infrastructure projects being constructed in Chiapas.</div>
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The EZLN continues to inspire people across the world for their actions. <i>We are sorry for the inconvenience, but this is revolution.</i></div>
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The sources I have used are as follows:</div>
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-<i>People Without Faces</i>, Directed by Elena Karykhalova, Oleg Myasoedov, and Vera Vorobyeva, (St Petersburg: Free Travel, 2016)</div>
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-<i>A Place Called Chiapas</i>, Directed by Nettie Wild, (New York, NY: Zeitgeist Films, 1998)</div>
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-<i>Zapatistas: Crónica de una Rebelión</i>, Directed by Victor Marina and Mario Viveros, (Mexico City: Canalseisdejulio, 2007)</div>
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-Castro, Y., ‘Interview: Regional Union of Craftswoman of Chiapas’, in Katzenberger, E., (ed.), <i>First World, Ha Ha Ha! The Zapatista Challenge</i>, (San Francisco, CA: City Lights Books, 1995), 111-118</div>
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-Edmonds-Poli, E., and Shirk, D., <i>Contemporary Mexican Politics</i>, Second Edition, (Plymouth: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2012)</div>
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-EZLN, ‘Demands at the Dialogue Table’, in Joseph, G., and Henderson, T., (eds.), <i>The Mexico Reader: History, Culture, Politics</i>, (Duke, NC: Duke University Press, 2009), 638-645</div>
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-Gramsci, A., ‘The Modern Prince’, in Hoare, Q., (ed.), <i>Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci</i>, Trans. Smith, G., (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1971), 123-205</div>
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-Klein, H., ‘“We Learn as We Go” – Zapatista Women share their Experiences’, <i>Toward Freedom</i>, (2008), towardfreedom.org/archives/women/qwe-learn-as-we-goq-zapatista-women-share-their-experiences/, accessed 11 April 2019</div>
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-Mallett-Oultrim, R., ‘The Story behind the EZLN’s Decision to enter Mexico’s Presidential Race’, <i>New Internationalist</i>, (2016), newint.org/features/2016/10/25/ezln-enters-mexicos-presidential-race; accessed 8 April 2019</div>
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-Marcos, ‘The Zapatistas Hike up the Price of the Indigenous Mexican Blood’, in Vodovnik, Ž., (ed.), <i>¡Ya Basta! Ten Years of the Zapatista Uprising</i>, (Oakland, CA: AK Press, 2004), 83-86</div>
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-Marcos, ‘12 Women in the Twelfth Year’, in Vodovnik, Ž., (ed.), <i>¡Ya Basta! Ten Years of the Zapatista Uprising</i>, (Oakland, CA: AK Press, 2004), 226-233</div>
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-Olivera, M., ‘Subordination and Rebellion: Indigenous Peasant Women in Chiapas Ten Years after the Zapatistas Uprising’, <i>Journal of Peasant Studies</i>, (2005), 32:3-4, 608-628</div>
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-Petrich, B., ‘Voices from the Masks’, in Katzenberger, E., (ed.), <i>First World, Ha Ha Ha! The Zapatista Challenge</i>, (San Francisco, CA: City Lights Books, 1995), 41-54</div>
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-Poniatowska, E., ‘Women, Mexico, and Chiapas Revolutionary Women’s Law’, in Katzenberger, E., (ed.), <i>First World, Ha Ha Ha! The Zapatista Challenge</i>, (San Francisco, CA: City Lights Books, 1995), 99-108</div>
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-Russell, P., <i>The Chiapas Rebellion</i>, (Austin, TX: Mexico Resources Center, 1995)</div>
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-Stephen, L., <i>Zapata Lives! Histories and Cultural Politics in Southern Mexico</i>, (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2002)</div>
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-Weinberg, B., <i>Homage to Chiapas: The New Indigenous Struggle in Mexico</i>, (London: Verso, 2000)</div>
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-"El CNI esboza su estrategia contra el Tren Maya". <i>Proceso</i>. January 4, 2020</div>
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Thank you for reading, we have a list of other Left-Wing and the 'Other' History posts <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/p/left-wing-and-other-history.html">here</a>. For other blog posts please see our <a href="https://www.facebook.com/TwibyHistoryGeekStuff/">Facebook</a> or catch me on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/lewistwiby?lang=en">@LewisTwiby</a>.</div>
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Lewis Twibyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03565517444017278980noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6707020941988899278.post-62294980889528482232019-12-29T08:05:00.000-08:002019-12-29T08:05:06.145-08:002019 and History<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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Another year comes to a close, and not only is there a new year on the horizon, but also a new decade. 2019 has seen many anniversaries and events which have parallels in history, so we'll be discussing some of them today. As always, I'm more of a modern historian so I will be gearing this towards more recent history, and I cannot cover everything which has happened this year. Let's see what happened over this year, and what parallels we can find.</div>
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<b>100 Years since the Spartacist Uprising</b></div>
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We discussed the Spartacist Uprising back in <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2019/01/left-wing-and-other-history.html">January</a>, and its legacy would impact the Left for the next century. By the end of the First World War the German Empire was collapsing - setbacks in the war, continued censorship, and rising mortality due to the British blockade was causing civil unrest. Marxist and socialist writers found new audiences in downtrodden and angered masses, and in October 1918 at the port city of Kiel sailors joined with local socialists taking over the city. This started a chain reaction where city after city saw the establishment of workers' councils, the soviets, across Germany. The newly established Spartacists under Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht saw this as the steps to bringing about a revolution, as what recently happened in Russia, so formed the Communist Party (KPD). On January 5 1919 protests in Berlin against the censorship by the new republic of Friedrich Ebert, who opposed revolution, quickly escalated into an armed uprising by workers. However, things did not go well for the Spartacists. Despite earning support from working-class Berliners the uprising was opposed by Berlin's wealthier communities. Splits within the Spartacists and less radical parties weakened them, and soon Ebert made an alliance with the Freikorps - a hard-right paramilitary whose members would later join the Nazis. The Freikorps would murder Luxemburg and Liebknecht, throwing their bodies into the Landwehr Canal. The two would become martyrs on the Left - especially Luxemburg being a Jewish, disabled, woman having to fight antisemitism, misogyny, and ableism. In the short term German socialism was taken over by more authoritarian Marxist-Leninists. Most of the libertarian Marxists were killed in the uprisings or fled to the Soviet Union where they would later be purged by Stalin, although there were still libertarian socialists around - most notably Clara Zetkin and Walter Benjamin. In the long-term the Spartacists offered guidance to new paths to an equal society, and Luxemburg has become a feminist icon.</div>
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<b>China's Anniversaries</b></div>
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This year China has seen three anniversaries which offers a troubling legacy for president Xi Jinping. The first is the centenary of the May Fourth Movement. Inspired by the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, and the overthrow of the Chinese emperor in 1912, students and intellectuals began an ambitious and radical movement to fundamentally change China. New theorists, such as Lu Xun, began radically critiquing society and started demanding a new China. The abolition of the Confucian social system, anti-imperialism, feminism, policies against footbinding, and socialism all were advocated, and at times implemented. Through this movement the Communist Party (CPC) emerged. This brings us to the second anniversary, the founding of the People's Republic. In October 1949, seventy years ago, the CPC finally won the decades long Civil War as Mao Zedong declared the new system in Beijing. Coming from the ideological roots of the May Fourth Movement it began a radical transformation of Chinese society. The final anniversary is the thirtieth anniversary of the Tienanmen Square Massacre. By the 1980s officials in the CPC had began a series of reforms adopting aspects of market capitalism, enriching themselves in the process. With future job prospects uncertain, and inspired by pro-democracy protests in the Eastern Bloc, beginning in April students started protesting. This was deeply embarrassing for the ruling CPC - while Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev visited students went on hunger strike, and despite the CPC trying to paint the protesters as Western stooges they sang the world socialist anthem, <i>The Internationale</i>. However, the movement was heavily divided about what its aims were, they were united by their opposition to corruption and authoritarianism. Eventually the government cracked down on June 4 - the resulting reprisals killed many, possibly in the thousands. </div>
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These legacies have proved problematic for the Chinese government. Since the 1980s China has dropped socialism, only keeping the aesthetic of socialism, so the CPC has the staggering paradox of having billionaires being members. An authoritarian, state capitalist party had to, therefore, celebrate two moments in history which aimed for the opposite (their achievements can be debated), and trying to suppress any memories of the third. Just as in the past the CPC has recently faced its own crisis of authority. Protesters have found new ways to criticise the state - consequently <i>Winnie the Pooh </i>is banned due to people comparing Xi Jinping to Winnie - resulting in embarrassments for the state. Marxist and Maoist students have been arrested for protesting the government; social media hashtags were shutdown because they were inadvertently revealing intense pollution in rivers; and since 2008 has been facing an underground Maoist movement. The liberatory rhetoric of May Fourth and Mao, (although in practice after 1949 he stopped this), comes at odds with China's current policies in restricting feminist activism, removing LGBT rights, and attempting to destroy Uighur culture through new policies and concentration camps. Xi Xinjing and the CPC, therefore, have to face this stark contrast in legacies.</div>
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<b>Bolivia</b></div>
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I want to discuss Bolivia in a wider context of protests globally, but the YouTuber Bad Empanada discussed it well. I have put the link to his video <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wR3N6BQXKOw">here</a> and I would recommend watching it.</div>
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<b>The Death of Mugabe</b></div>
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On September 6 Zimbabwe's aged former dictator Robert Mugabe died aged 95. Mugabe leaves an uncertain legacy for Zimbabwe and the ruling ZANU-PF party. Before Zimbabwe's official independence in 1980 the country was ruled by one of the most unequal societies in the world during that time. A white minority settler government held the land, judiciary and government leaving the majority black African population landless, disenfranchised, and impoverished. With the exception of a few families who managed to get an education, the majority of the black population were excluded from society. Political repression led to a guerrilla war. Mugabe himself became a martyr for the amount of time he spent in prison, and he later became a key figure in the guerrilla movement coming to lead ZANU. When the war came to an end in 1980 he was elected president, and began an ambitious reform policy reducing unemployment, gave Zimbabweans easier access to education, and started tentative land redistribution. However, immense power was given to Mugabe, and he was hampered by how much economic power the settler population had. Land reform was further hampered as it could only happen when Britain paid Zimbabwe to redistribute land. Mugabe himself made things worse. He quickly moved to stamp out opposition - in 1983 he used a new force called Fifth Brigade to destroy the opposition party, Zapu, in what has been known as the Gukurahundi. As parties fell along ethnic lines this led to a genocidal campaign against the Ndebele killing 20,000. Corruption, especially from the 1990s, crept in where war veterans were left without land or employment so Mugabe could enrich his loyalists. The next almost thirty years was characterised by spikes in inequality, corruption, and poverty until Mugabe was ousted in a coup in 2017. His death now leaves a conflicting legacy. Mugabe was the one who broke white settler power in Zimbabwe, but he also snatched its future for his own greed. The current president, Emmerson Mnangagwa, has been described as 'Mugabe's bodyguard', so the future of Zimbabwe has uncertainty in it.</div>
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<b>A Year of Protest</b></div>
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Across the world this year we have seen protests against the reversal of rights, or against the status quo. Many of these movements have been led by young or marginalised peoples, and can be compared to the protests which broke out in 1968 worldwide. Then, as today, young and marginalised people took to the streets worldwide to protest capitalism, racism, misogyny, and the complacency of an entrenched elite. This year we have seen protests against aged leaders, (Algeria, Sudan); corruption and economic inequality (Chile, Lebanon, France, Haiti); imperialism (West Papua); racism and the reversal of rights (Bolivia, Hong Kong, India); authoritarianism (Iran); or a mixture (the UK, Brazil, Ecuador). These protests have purposefully created links to the past, or their origins can be found in the past. For example, protests against Algeria's Abdelaziz Bouteflika have described themselves as finishing the Revolution of 1962, the war which liberated Algeria from French rule. Within the last month strikes in France have led to monumental protests and strikes led by radicals, and have directly linked themselves to both the Yellow Vests of last year, and France's radical past ranging from the 1789 Revolution to 1968. Protests in India and Hong Kong have arisen thanks to attempts to centralise authoritarian state power. India's far-right Narendra Modi over this year has removed the autonomy of Jammu and Kashmir, attempted to isolate that region, and has recently had laws passed which threatens to remove the citizenship of Assamese and non-Hindus, mainly Muslims. As a result, protests have erupted across India opposing this which have been compared to the fight for independence. Quite telling is that one of those arrested is India's most important historian Ramachandra Guha. In Hong Kong an extradition bill was passed which could allow people from Hong Kong to be taken to court in China. Over a million have came out since June to have this reversed, but splits in the movement have meant that they still drag on. A more radical branch, inspired by the anti-colonial riots of 1967, want to make it the start of a more equal and democratic Hong Kong, while others want the status quo - some controversially calling for US aid or waving colonial flags. </div>
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There have been a wave of anti-colonial protests as well. The situation in Assam, Kashmir, and Jammu are legacies of the arbitrary nature of how Britain divided empire. Hindutva, Hindu nationalist, groups, like the far-right RSS, have tried in Assam to forcibly convert the indigenous people to Hinduism. As a result, the protests in these regions have been a way to fight continued colonial attitudes to indigenous peoples. West Papua has similarly come back into attention for the Indonesian government's imposition of militarised forces in the region resulting in deaths. In Latin America, indigenous communities have been out to protest the neo-liberal, or authoritarian, states in which they live as they were most impacted by these policies. Indigenous activists took over Ecuador's capital of Quito forcing the government to evacuate themselves; Mapuche in Chile flew their flags from prominent places in the capital; and indigenous peoples have recently protested against Bolivia's new and openly white supremacist government which came to power when Aymara president Evo Morales was ousted in a coup. Linking this to the past, Mapuche in Chile decapitated a statue of Christopher Columbus and placed the head in the arms of a statue of a Mapuche leader. 1492 still affects indigenous peoples today. Gay pride, worldwide, has become increasingly radical as we have seen the anniversary of the Stonewall Riots, which we discussed <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2019/06/history-in-focus-stonewall-riots.html">here</a>, and communities across the world have reminded us how much we still need to fight. While there has been successes, (this year Ghana had its first gay pride, Botswana legalised homosexuality, and Austria legalised gay marriage), there have been major setbacks. Transphobia has become socially accepted in the UK in particular, which has been the focus of a new young generation of activists to resist - inspired by Stonewall.</div>
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<b>Climate Crisis</b></div>
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It is not surprising that climate change is drastically changing the planet. As I am writing this fires have swept Australia and have already claimed 400 million animals - it is almost certain that we might see the extinction of several species within the decade, including the koala. Intense hurricanes have hit the Caribbean, floods devastated South Asia, and northern England (where I'm from) saw destructive floods as flood systems failed. Intense weather conditions are being caused by climate change, something being caused thanks to the activities of humans. When we discussed the <a href="http://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2017/11/world-history-little-ice-age.html">Little Ice Age</a> we saw how climate change deeply impacts societies. Flooding and bad rains destroy crops, drier temperatures cause other crops to fail, and the impact this has on natural habitats destroys local communities. As natural resources fail, just like in the 1600s, this creates conflict. We have already seen this recently. ISIS in Syria managed to recruit from young, unemployed men who had recently moved to the countryside because harsher weather had made farming less profitable. If human-caused climate change is not tackled this could become worse. The future is not too bright. The UK, Australia, US, and Brazil have noted opponents of reform, or outright climate change deniers, in power - Brazil's Jair Bolsonaro purposefully burned the Amazon this year. Consumption in the economically wealthy states means that climate change continues - India and China produce so much carbon dioxide largely to feed the needs of the global north, and the Amazon was burnt to make way for farming to feed the global north. There is a small beacon of hope. Inspired by Greta Thunberg, millions have since taken part in Climate Strikes across the world demanding states act to reduce their carbon output. Key politicians, such as Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez in the US, have pledged to create a 'Green New Deal' to tackle climate change. </div>
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<b>Trump's Impeachment</b></div>
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Very recently the US House of Representatives voted on December 18 to impeach Donald Trump making him the third president, and only member of the <i>Home Alone 2 </i>cast, to be impeached. The first was Andrew Johnson in 1868; he was Lincoln's vice-president who got the role when his predecessor was assassinated. Johnson had sympathies with the former slave holding planters in the South so had worked to block legislation which would have given increased rights for the former slaves. A tired Congress put him on trial, but he never ended up being formally impeached by both houses. The Senate, twice, failed to vote to impeach him, and the trial was adjourned. As the election was underway, and Congress knew that Johnson wasn't running, impeachment by both houses was abandoned. The second president to be impeached was not actually Richard Nixon (the president I believe is most like Trump), as he resigned before impeachment proceedings could formally happen. Instead, the second one was Bill Clinton for obstructing justice and lying under oath about his affair with Monica Lewinsky in 1998. Again, the Senate failed to vote about whether to impeach so only the House was the only one to impeach him. As the Republicans currently have a majority in the Senate, and a two-thirds majority in favour of impeachment is required, but then there is also not enough for an acquittal.</div>
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Thank you for reading and that's the last blog post for not only 2019 but also the 2010s. What 2020 will bring we cannot be certain, but until then I hope the rest of your 2019 is good. For future blog updates please see our <a href="https://www.facebook.com/TwibyHistoryGeekStuff/">Facebook</a> or catch me on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/lewistwiby?lang=en">@LewisTwiby</a>.</div>
Lewis Twibyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03565517444017278980noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6707020941988899278.post-5641508599234972332019-12-22T09:44:00.001-08:002019-12-22T09:44:18.574-08:00World History: China's Changes - From Empire to Republic<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhUGyDyKqKX7vfXXFQ4U_1pUeaWlmYYXWPI4Nx-abEahS1UGfjPSoWZ2MBlZmig-zXbD0ZCmeenjQxe7dbPWIsuxl35cy8gXkYOt-wgVlq1DVVJC0IOEg7nTkdAQyKwz6J8WlU4a8jHDeju/s1600/450px-Xinhai_Revolution_in_Shanghai.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="282" data-original-width="450" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhUGyDyKqKX7vfXXFQ4U_1pUeaWlmYYXWPI4Nx-abEahS1UGfjPSoWZ2MBlZmig-zXbD0ZCmeenjQxe7dbPWIsuxl35cy8gXkYOt-wgVlq1DVVJC0IOEg7nTkdAQyKwz6J8WlU4a8jHDeju/s320/450px-Xinhai_Revolution_in_Shanghai.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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On World History we have been looking at how several states during the 1800s tried to cope with the rise of industrialism and imperialism. We have already discussed Russia and Japan, and last <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2019/12/world-history-chinas-changes-from-opium.html">time</a> we began looking at China's 'Century of Humiliation'. When we last left off the ruling Qing dynasty was facing its biggest crisis in authority since the dynasty began in the seventeenth-century. Western powers had humiliated China in two wars, the so-called 'Opium Wars', and the state itself had faced domestic unrest - most notably the infamous Taiping Rebellion. With this post we will be looking at how the Qing tried to cope with these issues, and how one of the oldest empires in human history gave way to a republic. This should be read in tandem with the previous World History post, and for further information I would recommend <i>The Search for Modern China </i>by Jonathan Spence - it covers from the late-Ming all the way up to the Tienanmen Square Massacre in 1989. </div>
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<b>The Re-Emergence of Anti-Manchu Sentiment</b></div>
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The ruling Qing dynasty were not Han Chinese, the largest population in China, but were instead Manchu. After the initial conquest there was an upsurge in anti-Manchu sentiment, but as the decades went along, and as Manchu rulers adopted more Han culture, these sentiments started to abate. These differences, and at times hostilities, never went away. For example, while, normally elite, Han women would have their feet bound elite Manchu women never did so, and Cao Xueqin's <i>Dream of the Red Chamber </i>references characters bowing 'in the Manchu way'. Even before outright collapse of the Qing Empire there had been underground anti-Manchu groups - the White Lotus Society, which we discussed last time, had hoped to possibly bring back the Han Ming dynasty to replace the Manchu Qing in the 1800s. The decline of the Qing's authority, especially in the context of external invasion, caused a resurgence of anti-Manchu sentiment. Humiliation by the imperial powers was blamed on the Manchus for weakening China - when Japan annexed the Ryukyu islands in 1879 this was used as prime evidence. The Ryukyu king had paid tribute to China for centuries, and Japan had always been seen as a lesser state, so the annexation of the islands by a perceived lesser state provided evidence that the Manchus had weakened China. The leader of the Taiping, Hong Xiuquan, gave a speech declaring:</div>
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<i>Can the Chinese still consider themselves men? Ever since the Manchus poisoned China, the flame of oppression has risen up to heaven, the poison of corruption has defiled the emperor’s throne, the offensive odour has spread over the four seas, and the influence of demons has distressed the empire while the Chinese with bowed heads and dejected spirits willingly became subjects and servants.</i></blockquote>
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A big reason why the Taiping had such early success was that they managed to tap into anti-Manchu sentiment - Hong alleged that the Manchu were sent by the devil to corrupt China. This anti-Manchu sentiment would later be tied to republicanism and anti-imperialism. </div>
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<b>Treaty Ports and New Communities</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJc4xWKeEfi7n-1Gr4f9ZIrm8sZQOx-_nHSwKDI0jLocU16vi_Oio2HGvzILamYMub9VZOUzPeh8sUHeM3_xs4mTza-I4LK3vmAGteL8QZ_jnNuBa_fzXUuCmq7oVw547hG8W6oI3LZhyY/s1600/Picture2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="390" data-original-width="518" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJc4xWKeEfi7n-1Gr4f9ZIrm8sZQOx-_nHSwKDI0jLocU16vi_Oio2HGvzILamYMub9VZOUzPeh8sUHeM3_xs4mTza-I4LK3vmAGteL8QZ_jnNuBa_fzXUuCmq7oVw547hG8W6oI3LZhyY/s320/Picture2.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Avenue Petain, Shanghai</td></tr>
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Foreign powers carved up China between themselves - the UK, France, Germany, Russia, Japan, the US, and even Austria-Hungary - where they exerted control over areas. Mainly, these were the 'Treaty Ports', the port cities forcibly opened to foreign trade due to the unequal treaties. In these cities imperial powers began enforcing their own culture, and capitalist structures, greatly changing them. These cities would later become China's biggest cities - although Shanghai was already growing by the 1830s it exploded after Britain used it as one of the main ports used for trade. Through these ports Chinese intellectuals could access Western literature, and Christian missionaries used them to begin introducing Christianity to China. Sun Yat-sen, for example, would be baptised in Hong Kong and would later study abroad in Japan and Hawaii. Missionaries would use their presence to attempt to bring about reforms against aspects of Chinese culture - most notably footbinding. However, it should be stressed that missionaries didn't start these critiques, Chinese officials had attempted, or promoted reforms, before them. Li Ruzhen, who we saw last time, wrote metaphorical stories about how men would react if they were dropped in a world where gender roles were reversed. This also caused anti-Christian responses due to the abrasive attacks on local culture - in 1870 thanks to a rumour French missionaries were killed in the Tianjin Massacre causing an international crisis. Elsewhere, port cities would become drastically changed. They grew as rural populations moved there for work creating an urban working populace. How cities looked further started changing. In the areas of cities owned by Europeans they started designing how the city looked based off of European ones. In the French area of Shanghai Avenue Petain was created to resemble a Parisian street, the Monument Street Baptist Church was constructed in Dengzhou in 1872 across from a temple, and HSBC bank proudly boasted a lion representing the British empire outside their Shanghai branch. However, it was very clear that these treaty ports were imperial holdings. Britain sent Sikh troops from India to act as police in Shanghai, for example. Stories further abounded about how parks supposedly barred Chinese from entry. Although not true, it was socially expected that Chinese were the subjects of the imperial powers, so certain areas or recreational sites were barred from Chinese usage.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjFe2XVLcG1YEgBvXIFeFhxnvG0c5EhHvsGsoza0QheqQSFjNm_ENksvx-t-z9lToIVZ0W0tjY7kMFDnCyNOpWQNvVZFtT0hd8lTl4UVAb444WpKZNjjGr5lkL4eJdMV-tvDne5r6xF1QUR/s1600/o-CHINATOWN-570.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="464" data-original-width="570" height="259" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjFe2XVLcG1YEgBvXIFeFhxnvG0c5EhHvsGsoza0QheqQSFjNm_ENksvx-t-z9lToIVZ0W0tjY7kMFDnCyNOpWQNvVZFtT0hd8lTl4UVAb444WpKZNjjGr5lkL4eJdMV-tvDne5r6xF1QUR/s320/o-CHINATOWN-570.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">San Francisco's Chinatown, 1800s</td></tr>
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The widespread wars, poverty, and destitution made many Chinese move abroad. With the opening of treaty ports it allowed greater movement for traditionally static communities. Many moved to the growing ports, others started settling in long conquered territories like Tibet and Xinjiang, but many chose to move out of China itself. Most settled in with already established Chinese communities in southeast Asia in Malaysia, Vietnam, the Philippines, and Indonesia. In Dutch-controlled Indonesia they were used as tax-collectors and managers in the Dutch-owned opium monopolies. Chinese expatriates soon moved across the world - the Caribbean, London, California, Latin America, South Africa, and Australia were just some of the places where they went. In a tale similar to wider histories of immigration most who emigrated were young men hoping to earn money to send back home, or to find their riches abroad before returning home to China. For example, in 1880 100,000 Chinese men lived in California, to 3,000 women. Outside of southeast Asia most ended up working in hard and labour intensive jobs. Strict contracts stopped meant that many in Cuba chose to runaway or commit suicide to get out of their slave-like jobs. Mining, especially gold mining, attracted many emigrants because of the quick money which could be earned, if they survived. As a result, northern Australia, South Africa, and California became sought after places to migrate to - San Francisco was initially called <i>Jinshan</i>, or 'Mountain of Gold', in Chinese. In 1873 the foreign department, the Zongli Yamen, started setting up foreign departments to see how Chinese abroad were being treated - the first embassy was created in Singapore. Racism soon emerged alongside exploitation. The formations of 'Chinatowns' was seen as Chinese workers rejecting the nation, in the US they became associated with decadence and lawlessness thanks to a series of gang wars called the 'tong wars'. Outright hostility and racism broke out quickly - a race riot broke out in San Francisco in 1871 after two police were killed during a tong war battle leading to the deaths of 19, and in 1885 white miners in Wyoming Territory beat a worker to death with a shovel leading to a race riot killing a further 28. Misogyny mixed with racism as Chinese were accused of being feminine with 'sing-song' voices, and in Sonora, Mexico they were accused of 'stealing' women. In 1882 the US Senate passed the first of several legislation restricting Chinese migration viewing them as being inferior so were 'polluting' America.</div>
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<b>The Self-Strengthening Movement</b></div>
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The 'Century of Humiliation' gives the implication that Chinese officials were defenceless against imperialistic onslaught, however, this ignores attempts they made to stop this. Even rebellions, like the Taiping Tiangguo, can be seen this way - by replacing the Qing the Taiping viewed themselves as 'saving' China. Court officials involved with foreign wars or stopping rebellions - such as Prince Gong and Li Hongzhang - began looking at why China had seemingly fallen behind. This began a period of attempted reforms which came to be known as the 'Self-Strengthening Movement', and more eager reformers claimed it was the Tongzhi Restoration. They believed that under the Tongzhi Emperor China's power would finally be restored. Echoing the later <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2019/11/world-history-meiji-japan.html">Meiji Restoration in Japan</a>, Li sent students abroad to study engineering, sciences, and military sciences so they could return with skills which could be applied to China. Feng Guifen strongly advocated for learning languages managing to open an Interpreter's School in 1862, and in 1867 it transformed into a full college inviting foreign lecturers. A key aspect of the Self-Strengthening Movement was inviting Westerners to China to help their military development - Halliday Macartney supervised cannon casting, John Fryer translated technical books, and W.A.P. Martin taught languages and science in Beijing. Li Hongzhang, who became an important reformer after 1874 with the death of Zeng Guofan, amassed a personal staff of foreign advisers. This period also saw, for the only time in the Qing's history, a woman held considerable power - Empress-Dowager Cixi. The mother of Tongzhi she remained a shrewd and powerful figure in China until her death in 1908. A quote by her perfectly sums up her life: <i>Although I have heard much about Queen Victoria, I do not think her life is half as interesting and eventful as mine. </i>Unlike Victoria, Cixi had a much more direct impact on the fate of her state. She became so powerful that she could determine who became emperor; it is widely believed that she forced the suicide of her pregnant daughter-in-law so she could control who came to power.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Cixi</td></tr>
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As we refer to it as the 'Century of Humiliation' we can say that this movement failed to 'modernise' China, in contrast to Japan which propelled it to an imperialist power. One of the key reasons was how conservative the movement was, the reformers wanted to reshape China but keep things the same. This idea was known as <i>ti-yong</i>, (essence-use), how could China use Western ideas and technology but without giving up China's essence? This was also seen in Japan, but not as conservatively applied. The Confucian system was left untouched which prevented the economic and social reforms which the reformers wanted to enact. This is effectively seen when Li met with Japanese official Mori Arinori - he questioned how Japan could so quickly 'abandon' its culture. It did not further help that the Tongzhi Emperor died young in 1875 at the age of 18 - officially by smallpox but unofficially by overindulgence and exhaustion in the pleasure quarters of Beijing. With such a top-heavy state a strong ruler was required to enact such reforms which the Qing was lacking. The Self-Strengthening Movement was set-back by the reliance on foreign powers. Anti-Chinese rhetoric prevented Li from sending more students to the US in the 1880s, and although a new navy had been created, Li was wary of its weakness so backed down to foreign powers seizing former tribute states. Within a few years Japan had seized Ryukyu, Britain had seized Burma, and France seized Hanoi. The Self-Strengthening Movement showed its failure with the humiliating defeat by Japan in 1895 during the Sino-Japanese War - Japan managed to annex Taiwan and Liaodong, made Korea a protectorate, build factories in China, and pay money to Japan. This inspired the young Guangxu Emperor in 1898 to 'modernise' China - in a series of so many reforms over a hundred days it became known as the Hundred Days' Reform. Radical in scope they planned rapid industrialisation, a new educational system which went beyond Confucianism, establishing a university in Beijing, updating the military, becoming a constitutional monarch, and planning to curb Cixi's power. These reforms ended in a palace coup. Relying on the military figure Yuan Shikai, his plan was to use the military to arrest Cixi's key allies so he could then oust her from court - instead Yuan told Cixi's allies. Guangxu was placed under house arrest ending the reforms.</div>
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<b>Reformers and Revolutionaries</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrpSMLyQMlqs6GF2wfx-eOz8lwdDlCOuK1muQyOyHN-oBZ9jOop5IPLTofYUny-qOF1jdoVkMI-d9uxpEk4fwLKwAWNjQqApXJYaRsdz80NtxrhAQcwsKUGTI3BaH0vrrzDtW3yT1EQkuF/s1600/Kang_Yu-wei_cph.3a36142.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="377" data-original-width="330" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrpSMLyQMlqs6GF2wfx-eOz8lwdDlCOuK1muQyOyHN-oBZ9jOop5IPLTofYUny-qOF1jdoVkMI-d9uxpEk4fwLKwAWNjQqApXJYaRsdz80NtxrhAQcwsKUGTI3BaH0vrrzDtW3yT1EQkuF/s320/Kang_Yu-wei_cph.3a36142.jpg" width="280" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Kang Youwei</td></tr>
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As we have seen, there have throughout the 1800s figures pushing to reform the Qing government. The Self-Strengthening Movement and Hundred Days' Reform were just two aspects of this reform. Some focused on specifically social issues, mainly women's issues which we'll discuss later, and others the wider Qing government. Two notable reformers were close allies of Guangxu - Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao. Both were strong advocates of constitutional monarchy, and aimed to influence Guangxu in enacting these reforms. Kang was more radical than Liang, but his theories weren't compiled into the <i>Da Tongshu </i>into the 1930s. Although heavily inspired by prevailing social Darwinistic tendencies - he argued for some version of eugenics and believed that Confucianism and Buddhism were 'higher faiths' - he started advocating for radical changes. Inspired by both Buddhism and European socialists, he is seen as one of the first advocates for communism in China. Seeing capitalism as evil he argued that humanity could only be liberated through socialism; the family unit promoted injustice so had to be replaced by a communal child-raising system; that marriage would be a year-long contract which could be renewed when both partners wanted; and that the adoption of new technology could bring this about. The <i>Da Tongshu </i>would later become incredibly influential - Mao Zedong would be especially inspired by this. However, he never got to implement his ideas. The palace coup forcing Guangxu into house arrest caused Kang and Liang to go into exile where they exiled for a constitutional monarchy. A new generation was emerging, one who wanted revolution and not reform.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Sun Yat-sen</td></tr>
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One of the most important revolutionaries was Sun Yat-sen, now often referred to as the 'Father of the Nation'. From a Hakka and Cantonese background to a labouring family. He had a global education being educated in Guangdong, Hawaii, and Hong Kong where he became introduced to a wide range of ideas, as well as becoming a doctor. While in Hong Kong he became involved with other student activists which became known as the 'Four Bandits'. Frustrated at the conservatism of the Qing reforms, he even wrote an 8,000-character letter to Li urging more radical reforms, he moved back to Hawaii becoming involved with the Revive China Society. Aligning with poorer Chinese migrants the Revive China Society advocated for revolution and the establishment of a republic. In 1905 he would help found the Revolutionary Alliance to offer a group to overthrow the state, and wrote the influential <i>Three Principles of the People</i>. These were three ideas which would benefit the Chinese people: <i>Minzu</i>, often called 'nationalism' but more literally as 'people', an anti-imperialist idea uniting all the peoples in China, not just the Han; <i>Minquan</i>, 'democracy' or 'People's Power'; and <i>Minsheng</i>, 'People's Livelihood', where everyone has access to mobility and rights, which has been heavily debated. It has been argued that this meant socialism, in 1905 he did make ties with the Second International as an example. There were other revolutionaries. Zou Rong was a contemporary of Sun, but in <i>The Revolutionary Army </i>(1903) argued for a more ethnic nationalism calling the Han 'slaves' of the Manchu. He even argued for the genocide of the Manchus. In 1906 <i>The Communist Manifesto </i>was first translated, and anarchism soon emerged including the New World Society, formed in 1906. Before the eventual overthrow of the empire in 1912 there were several republican uprisings, even by the Revolutionary Alliance. Between 1906 and 1908 there were seven uprisings by them.</div>
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<b>The Boxer Rebellion</b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj6cOQ49ARD1I-bterZmzKc5Y5L92MBj1yR4zQSW7hfKMEBUgTgNCzUsvw49Dv5H79FZ839O50OrjRaOLzDynA5tUi1iPfyuqGDFGLUTKCQdAHUoEKWowE2ZKxlYXlzVOciQCQGolpBmMi0/s1600/Picture3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="322" data-original-width="520" height="198" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj6cOQ49ARD1I-bterZmzKc5Y5L92MBj1yR4zQSW7hfKMEBUgTgNCzUsvw49Dv5H79FZ839O50OrjRaOLzDynA5tUi1iPfyuqGDFGLUTKCQdAHUoEKWowE2ZKxlYXlzVOciQCQGolpBmMi0/s320/Picture3.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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While this was ongoing imperial forces continued to tear chunks out of China's sovereignty. A group known as the Righteous and Harmonious Fists became increasingly frustrated about how reform was being hampered by Chinese conservatives and foreign imperialists. American missionaries nicknamed them the 'Boxers' due to their combination of spiritualism with physical and marital actions. The end of the Hundred Days' Reform sparked the uprising beginning in Shandong by local militias and impoverished peasants. They appeared to take an anti-Manchu stance, but then began advocating for the rights of the emperor and expelling foreigners. Missionaries and converts were killed, and soon the foreign legations in the cities were put under siege. The 'Boxer Rebellion' lasted for three years and split the Chinese court. Cixi decided to support the rebellion, seeing it as a way to protect her standing, but many officials tried to remain neutral. This was especially the case as the 'Boxers' were incredibly successful. They managed to isolate the legations, and destroy infrastructure isolating Beijing. An alliance of British, Japanese, Russian, American, French, Italian, German, and Austrian invaded and brutally crushed the rebellion. Imperial powers rejoiced in the destruction - the movie <i>55 Days in Peking </i>would be made decades later to celebrate it.</div>
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<b>Women in a Changing China</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglqvbeOEODgdmkAW4AjzrouosB238NZRJyVnVwTHyZh29UUoo38z6au8GgoXsWbl1zqEQPkKH0-8P2dMJI9OS-6iFp0-Wofx89YSV034-xou8key8zSYYtG_MA8CEm5rs2hNhzlTz_3R-C/s1600/800px-QiuJin_feminist_revolutionary.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1261" data-original-width="800" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglqvbeOEODgdmkAW4AjzrouosB238NZRJyVnVwTHyZh29UUoo38z6au8GgoXsWbl1zqEQPkKH0-8P2dMJI9OS-6iFp0-Wofx89YSV034-xou8key8zSYYtG_MA8CEm5rs2hNhzlTz_3R-C/s320/800px-QiuJin_feminist_revolutionary.jpg" width="203" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A statue of Qiu Jin</td></tr>
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A key part of the reforms were the role of women. As we saw when we discussed <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2019/09/world-history-feminism.html">feminism</a>, there was a discussion about women's role in society from women, missionaries, and domestic reformers. In particular, they focused on arranged marriage, footbinding, and a disparity in education. A common trend worldwide was the influence of Henrik Ibsen's <i>A Doll's House</i>, and it would inspire advocates for reform to change society. Kang Youwei, for example, saw the family as an inherently restrictive institute which had to be fundamentally changed if women wished to be liberated. Mao Zedong was very influenced by feminists and feminist writing. In 1919 he would write a short piece called <i>Miss Chao's Suicide </i>discussing the recent suicide of a 'Miss Zhao'. Forced into a marriage she killed herself, so Mao criticised a society which forced women into suicide due to their inability to express their rights. Women were instrumental in trying to bring about change. One notable woman was Qiu Jin. She was forced into marriage and footbinding, but she rebelled and moved to Japan after becoming involved with revolutionary movements. Editing a journal she called for women to rise up against patriarchy to end forced marriage and footbinding, something she would further link to the overthrowing of the Manchu dynasty. In 1906 she would bring 2,000 students back to China, also forming a new journal with feminist poet Xu Zihua, with the intention of forming a revolutionary movement. As the plan to lead an uprising in Anqing resulting in her execution, but she would become a martyr for revolution and feminism. As early as 1923, Xiang Jingyu pressured the recently formed Communist Party to form a women's branch. However, women's emancipation would not come for decades, and still has not been fully achieved.</div>
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<b>The End of the Qing</b></div>
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China's final dynasty ended extremely suddenly - so suddenly that Sun Yat-sen was actually raising funds in the US at the time. On 9 October 1911 a bomb exploded in the house of anti-Qing revolutionaries in Wuhan. The next day the local army mutinied; the Revolutionary Alliance had infiltrated the military knowing that a united army could easily prevent their success. The mutiny saw the seizing of Wuhan and the declaration of a Chinese Republic. A fire then started sweeping over China. People rebelled for various reasons - Han restoration, republicanism, local grievances, independence. Sun stayed to raise funds but returned in time to be elected the first president of a republic; he would design a new flag with each colour representing an ethnicity, including the Manchus. However, the revolutionaries were in a weak position so had to rely on Yuan Shikai, the co-crusher of the Hundred Days' Reform, to help bring down the Qing. Yuan gave them a deal - if he was declared president he would secure the army's loyalty and gave the monarchy to stand down. Threatening to kill the emperor he managed to get the Empress-Dowager Longyu to get the six-year-old Puyi to abdicate bringing an end to the Chinese Empire after millennia. </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbXYC0KxLG2Z0SYdVi4WnjKkJdmX0bNXn8PL6D-gLzJv2p1bDTVy12SPxzScAMZOrgG91Cf9VpPiZI4A9uI6NdFKj4ZAncf0kiAQk1GYTelIFXq3QbPQu8N46P9Ns3l2mgaYexo_YpnxzQ/s1600/330px-Puyi_%25281922%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="424" data-original-width="330" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbXYC0KxLG2Z0SYdVi4WnjKkJdmX0bNXn8PL6D-gLzJv2p1bDTVy12SPxzScAMZOrgG91Cf9VpPiZI4A9uI6NdFKj4ZAncf0kiAQk1GYTelIFXq3QbPQu8N46P9Ns3l2mgaYexo_YpnxzQ/s320/330px-Puyi_%25281922%2529.jpg" width="249" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Puyi in 1922</td></tr>
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However, Sun Yat-sen's dream soon turned into a nightmare. Despite his Alliance winning the 1913 elections for the role of prime minister, Yuan ensured that he was soon assassinated. Yuan created links with foreign banks and took out massive loans, something Japan took as an excuse to try and extract more demands from China. Fearing for his life Sun fled to Japan and called for a Second Revolution, something which came quite quickly. In 1915, to solidify his power, Yuan declared himself emperor, but popular opposition forced him to return to presidency a year later. He would die in 1916 but China would remain in crisis.</div>
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<b>1919 and After</b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEizwxT64daG_edhdTtNZ2A-MVFrXJZM5mieWpVkX2066GXU2CDmTeu3dUR4uU8QaTDO9sLiqZ6RdKJvInd3WanhT-_1nVYy0mpBzEZWlavq8Ip2W8DkmiFpxtYpwVcheMfY32cGLOJzubLL/s1600/Picture1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="336" data-original-width="485" height="221" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEizwxT64daG_edhdTtNZ2A-MVFrXJZM5mieWpVkX2066GXU2CDmTeu3dUR4uU8QaTDO9sLiqZ6RdKJvInd3WanhT-_1nVYy0mpBzEZWlavq8Ip2W8DkmiFpxtYpwVcheMfY32cGLOJzubLL/s320/Picture1.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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The years 1916 to 1923 are seen as some of the most revolutionary of the twentieth century, until the 1960s at least, where worldwide new movements emerged challenging old orders - from the Russian Revolution to socialist uprisings Argentina. The Revolutionary Alliance was reconstituted into the Koumintang (KMT) as a way to effectively resist the growing political disintegration in China - Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles was adopted as its ideology. After Yuan Shikai's death a period known as the 'Warlord Era' began - regional leaders carved out their own territories. The newly established Soviet Union offered aid to the KMT seeing it as a way to bring socialism to China, and a leading figure in the movement, Chiang Kai-shek, was sent to Moscow for training. The Treaty of Versailles enraged China - it was ignored and how Japan was allowed to keep German territories in China which had seized. This began a cultural movement known as the May Fourth Movement. This was an intellectual movement by radical students, writers, thinkers, and activists which wanted social change and resistance to imperialism. Blaming Confucianism for holding back society they wanted to resist traditional class roles, bring equality to women, and unite China under a shared desire for equality. It saw many influential thinkers take part including a young Mao Zedong, leading writer and socialist Lu Xun, and anarchist Ba Jing. From this movement, in 1921, the Communist Party would emerge, directly inspired by the October Revolution. Communism would soon emerge as a popular ideology in China with a large and impoverished population, but there would be setbacks. In 1925 Sun Yat-sen died early leaving Chiang Kai-shek in control of the KMT. The initial alliance with the Communist Party remained while the warlords were slowly defeated, but he began moving away from Sun for a more authoritarian system. In 1927 he ordered a mass killing of communists in Shanghai which began the Chinese Civil War, lasting up until 1949.</div>
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<b>Conclusion</b></div>
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We have traced the movement of China from a Confucian-based empire to a republic inspired by very different ideas. This period, the 'Century of Humiliation', would directly inspire the rest of China's history throughout the twentieth century. The liberatory ideas of the May Fourth Movement would create an ideology becoming hotly contested in China, and the opposition from Chiang's KMT would create an alternate path. However, this will be discussed in the future when we look at the Second World War, and China's place in it, and the rise of the People's Republic.</div>
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The sources I have used are as follows:</div>
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-Jonathan Spence, <i>In Search for Modern China</i>, (New York: 1990)</div>
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-Ono Kazuko, <i>Chinese Women in a Century of Revolution, 1850-1950</i>, (Stanford: 1978)</div>
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-Immanuel Hsu, <i>The Rise of Modern China</i>, Sixth Edition, (New York: 2000)</div>
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-Kumari Jayawardena, <i>Feminism and Nationalism in the Third World</i>, (London: 1986)</div>
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-Frances Wood, <i>No Dogs and Not Many Chinese, Treaty Port Life in China, 1843-1943</i>, (London: 1998)</div>
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-Chun-tu Hsueh, (ed.), <i>The Chinese Revolution of 1911: New Perspectives</i>, (Hong Kong: 1983)</div>
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-Mao Zedong, 'Miss Chao's Suicide,' <a href="https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/works/1919/miss-chao.htm">Marxists.org</a>, (1919), (Accessed 16/12/2019)</div>
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-Jonathan Spence, 'China: 1368-1911', in John Whitney Hall, (ed.), <i>History of the World: Earliest Times to the Present</i>, (East Bridgewater: 2013), 532-559</div>
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Thank you for reading. For other World History posts please see our <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/p/world-history.html">list</a>. For other posts please see our <a href="https://www.facebook.com/TwibyHistoryGeekStuff/">Facebook</a> or catch me on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/lewistwiby?lang=en">@LewisTwiby</a>.</div>
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Lewis Twibyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03565517444017278980noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6707020941988899278.post-86557547778727707122019-12-15T11:49:00.000-08:002019-12-15T11:49:25.314-08:00World History: China's Changes - From the Opium War to Taiping<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggfh3Mu7KM1QmgLhWkAcLJJagIAFmkQMDuTfkasJDYp75zb-NTSUFbMJ7zHTNZybkFUESAA_8UcfWcL2BgKiJlUT0CIP4TnuN4xvZKLZ_fLsozspC529p2Ozh5Sv6WF3THRvQk4O57M_hw/s1600/Destroying_Chinese_war_junks%252C_by_E._Duncan_%25281843%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="681" data-original-width="1040" height="209" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggfh3Mu7KM1QmgLhWkAcLJJagIAFmkQMDuTfkasJDYp75zb-NTSUFbMJ7zHTNZybkFUESAA_8UcfWcL2BgKiJlUT0CIP4TnuN4xvZKLZ_fLsozspC529p2Ozh5Sv6WF3THRvQk4O57M_hw/s320/Destroying_Chinese_war_junks%252C_by_E._Duncan_%25281843%2529.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A naval battle from the First Opium War</td></tr>
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The last time we discussed China we looked at the <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2018/07/world-history-qing-china.html">Qing</a>, but even then faults were emerging in the empire. Today, we will look at, some, of the period which has been referred to as 'The Century of Humiliation'. From the 1830s until 1949 China saw itself attempt to reform itself in the face of domestic turmoil and imperial aggression which would lead to the rise of republicanism, civil war, and colonialism. Over the next two posts we'll be looking at the immense changes which China underwent during the 1800s and early-1900s. Naturally, we cannot cover everything, but the bibliography at the end will contain the sources which I have used, and they give an interesting narrative of this period. In particular, I would recommend <i>The Search for Modern China</i> by Jonathan Spence; it covers a huge span of Chinese history, from the late-Ming up to 1989, but it is an easy and informative read. This post, we will look at the the cracks which emerged at the end of the 1700s until the brutal war with the Taiping; next post we'll look at the aftermath of the Taiping until the Warlord Period. From the 1830s until 1949 this period is often referred to as the 'Century of Humiliation.'</div>
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<b>The Cracks Begin</b></div>
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It is often seen that imperial intervention is what brought down the Qing - after all the 'Century of Humiliation' is often dated from 1839 with the beginning of the 'Opium War'. However, imperialism exacerbated domestic tensions, and these tensions predate the arrival of imperial ships. Immanuel Hsu has identified six factors about why Qing authority started to wane when the Jiaqing Emperor took over in 1795 after the abdication of Qianlong. The first, administrative inefficiency - strict regulation of administrators meant that, quoting one high courtier, success in government was to 'kowtow more and talk less.' Power was concentrated with the emperor, and such a system succeeded when the emperor was competent - while Qianlong was, his successors were not. However, this administrative inefficiency caused future emperors to be inefficient - they had to contend with an inactive administration preventing efficient rule. Second, corruption was widespread. Qianlong's imperial bodyguard Ho-shen amassed a fortune of 800 million taels (about $1.5 billion), so that, following his execution in 1799, it was joked that 'When Ho-shen fell, Jiaqing feasted.' Third, the degradation of the bannermen. Like the samurai in <a href="http://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2018/06/world-history-tokugawa-shogunate.html">Tokugawa Japan</a>, the Manchu bannermen had brought military victory to the early-Qing, but through centuries of privileged land ownership, coupled with corruption, meant they stopped being efficient. Fourth, the Qing coffers were running dry. Qianlong loved big displays of power which cost the state over 120 million taels, and constant wars of expansion further drained the treasury. Corruption made this worse, officials purposefully postponed fighting the White Lotus Rebellion (1796-1804) so they could get more money. Fifth, rising population. Large landowners controlled arable land, and they kept it despite the growing population. From 1644 to 1812, the land available rose by 50%, whereas the population rose by 100%. As land was not redistributed to accommodate this, it created a poor and unemployed rural population who turned to rebels or bandits. Sixth, intellectual decline. Thanks to tight restrictions on what administrators could do by the late-1700s scholars, who made up the civil service, stopped being administrators. Why bother applying knowledge when bribes and kowtowing could do the same quicker and more safely?</div>
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When we think of Qing era revolts we either think of the Ming loyalists of the 1600s, or the revolts which emerged in the mid to late-1800s. However, the late-1700s saw a wave of secret societies emerge or outright rebel. Since the 1300s there had been a Buddhist secret society called the White Lotus; it attracted Han Chinese who were enticed by the idea that soon the new Buddha would arrive. There had been several White Lotus uprisings and movements throughout Chinese history, and one broke out in 1774. Rebels led by a herbalist called Wang Lun rose up to challenge to a general antagonism to the ruling Manchu order - Wang famously stated that <i>'If I call on Heaven, Heaven will assist me; if I call on Earth, Earth will give me magical strength. Their guns will not fire. What men will dare impede me?'</i> Although Wang Lun's rebellion, after initial early success, was crushed it would inspire other rebellions. In the 1780s, the Heaven and Earth Society rose up in Taiwan and declared a new dynasty 'Obedient to Heaven'; in Gansu province two Muslim revolts emerged opposing the state appointed Muslim officials; and in the southwest Miao tribal people revolted. Most importantly, in 1799 a new White Lotus rebellion emerged directly more political than Wang Lun's rebellion. They directly linked their rising to local tax inequalities and managed to spread across Sichuan, Hubei, Shaanxi, and Henan. All these rebellions were eventually crushed, but it showed one thing - Qing rule was being rocked. </div>
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<b>Imperialism and the First Opium War</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKLz-WcdBCgXZ5QualDgafY8SKkFhr_-GgSGsOlXWOoekQZRSlRh_W-4tG7pB4YYRCidDfTRRpqiCrA6Rjy0c8mEyxh02m4YmPcaO56V4upLUw7IB691B7KPSA_5quzPQtHSKcwnftUtgu/s1600/Commissioner_Lin_2.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="566" data-original-width="330" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKLz-WcdBCgXZ5QualDgafY8SKkFhr_-GgSGsOlXWOoekQZRSlRh_W-4tG7pB4YYRCidDfTRRpqiCrA6Rjy0c8mEyxh02m4YmPcaO56V4upLUw7IB691B7KPSA_5quzPQtHSKcwnftUtgu/s320/Commissioner_Lin_2.png" width="186" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Lin Zexu, c.1843</td></tr>
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For decades the imperialist powers was eyeing up China - now free from the Napoleonic Wars and the rise of Industrial capitalism made China a new market for expansion. As we saw previously, China had rebuffed the Macartney mission in the 1790s, this was an attempt for Britain to open an embassy in Beijing. Europeans, and especially missionaries, were only allowed to operate in either Macau or Canton, and even then they were only allowed to trade with permission from local officials. In 1834 William John Napier arrived at Canton and demanded that he be allowed to trade, he was refused and war almost broke out. These feelings festered for five years, and in the meantime Britain started illegally selling opium. Britain was more reliant on Chinese goods than China was on Britain creating a trade imbalance which Britain disliked. Consequently, Britain decided to sell opium grown in India through Canton to address this; opium had been banned by the Jiaqing Emperor so British merchants became the primary source of opium. Within only a few years the amount of opium sold to China exploded - by 1835 it had passed 30,000 chests and within three years it exceeded 40,000. More and more people became addicted, and a significant chunk of Chinese silver went towards the opium trade. It was decided to stamp out the opium trade, so Lin Zexu was sent to Canton to stamp it out in 1839. As governor-general of Hubei and Hunan he had virtually wiped out opium through ruthless means; he wrote a letter to good friend and outspoken reformer Gong Zizhen that he wished to hang all opium smokers and all peddlers should be beheaded. He quickly set to work against opium. Using a mixture of reason, persuasion, and coercion he quickly started wiping out opium. Students and gentry were told the dangers of opium, and were allowed to anonymously give the names of addicts and distributors. Within three months he had arrested over 1,600 people; had seized over 78,000 pounds of opium; and had seized a further 55,000 opium pipes. Having a weak navy he tried a different approach with Europeans going as far as to write a letter to Queen Victoria urging her as a <i>'honourable nation' </i>to help <i>'remove the source of evil'</i>. When foreigners refused to hand over all the opium he had them blockaded, had Chinese workers leave their employment, and even had gongs banged all night to keep them awake. After six weeks 3 million pounds of raw opium were handed over and eventually funnelled into the sea. Lin made a special prayer saying that <i>'you </i>[the Southern Sea] <i>who wash away all stains and cleanse all impurities...tell the creatures of the water to move away for a time, to avoid being contaminated.' </i></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjdHH7UI8zNNUozUlhG7A9oXEi2nu0sKJMNhfIdL0wxdkKlxgRWjKUEaVk2aLBFUut0V0U36uTw1ED1rpkHgz72kg9Xkx2Xp3yCTOXgaJH4D8byPtggnNAsVS3dm3ETquMjdc9wM65H6Phn/s1600/533px-98th_Foot_at_Chinkiang.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="345" data-original-width="533" height="207" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjdHH7UI8zNNUozUlhG7A9oXEi2nu0sKJMNhfIdL0wxdkKlxgRWjKUEaVk2aLBFUut0V0U36uTw1ED1rpkHgz72kg9Xkx2Xp3yCTOXgaJH4D8byPtggnNAsVS3dm3ETquMjdc9wM65H6Phn/s320/533px-98th_Foot_at_Chinkiang.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A British depiction of the Battle of Chinkiang</td></tr>
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The British were enraged about another nation destroying their trade, and wealthy opium merchant William Jardine even returned to Britain to help calls for military action against China. Lin continued to firmly stamp out the opium trade, and was even mobilised locals against the British after they refused to hand over someone who had murdered a villager outside Kowloon near Hong Kong. Angered, Britain sent a fleet under George Elliott which blockaded Canton and Ningbo, and seized Zhoushan in 1840. To avoid war and reopen trade governor-general Qishan saw that Lin was dismissed and banished, an indemnity paid, and that the British could meet the Qing court. However, the prime minister, Lord Palmerston, wanted to dominate China and sent Sir Henry Pottinger to enact this. The Qing were unprepared for the strength of the British military. Steam-powered British ships, like the <i>Nemesis</i>, allowed quick transport and superior firepower compared to the Chinese ships. That does not mean that the Qing did not put up a serious fight - Lin had commissioned scholars to study Western ships, and the invading British army found near-complete warships in Wusong, Xiamen, and Shanghai. However, the British still won an easy victory occupying several ports including Shanghai, Xiamen, Nanjing, and Ningbo. The ensuing Treaty of Nanjing, the first of many Unequal Treaties, was humiliating for the Qing, and is now seen as the beginning of the Century of Humiliation. The Daoguang Emperor himself was forced to agree to pay an indemnity of $21 million, lift restrictions on trade, open five cities (Canton, Shanghai, Xiamen, Ningbo, and Fuzhou) to trade, station British consuls in each port city, and perpetually cede Hong Kong. This was the first setback the Qing had seen since they came to power, and would shatter the image of their security. The earlier mentioned faults in Qing power would come spilling out.</div>
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<b>Societal Changes</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgFEtqS3ci5VpObjis-TuiGG2Ie7YdlszYx8yPiWI39_W7PGwP1C4f8s1zeRgQtNTUOnWiCt_Evrug_ZJ1vdfToS1KQ1IN-k9IMD5CcKrBa4y6SSEwFUKlH9WjdjAB0Pzjb3PdimyH1t8CD/s1600/190905-history-timeline-768x576.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="576" data-original-width="768" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgFEtqS3ci5VpObjis-TuiGG2Ie7YdlszYx8yPiWI39_W7PGwP1C4f8s1zeRgQtNTUOnWiCt_Evrug_ZJ1vdfToS1KQ1IN-k9IMD5CcKrBa4y6SSEwFUKlH9WjdjAB0Pzjb3PdimyH1t8CD/s320/190905-history-timeline-768x576.gif" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">From a HSBC advert for their Shanghai branch</td></tr>
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There were shifts emerging in society even before the humiliating defeat in what is now seen as the First Opium War. Landlessness and unemployment had fuelled the rise of banditry, rebellions, and exoduses to urban areas; pressures in urban areas worsened thanks to corruption and the British purposefully encouraged a surreptitious opium addiction among the unemployed to create a continuous demand for opium; and the image of the Qing had been shattered. Modern Triads emerged during this period as an avenue for the landless and unemployed to find a living, or those in British Hong Kong to resist imperialism. Although we'll discuss life in the treaty ports more next time, it is worth discussing it briefly here. Russia, the US, and France soon joined Britain in having Unequal Treaties signed with China under the threat of war. Especially from the 1850s, an increasing European presence could be found in the treaty ports. Indian troops became a common site and locals in Shanghai combined local traditions with imperial capitalism when the first European banks were opened in Shanghai. Lions were seen as lucky, and HSBC banks had lion statues outside them, so photos show statues with shiny paws after repeated rubbing. Local Chinese were further exploited and discriminated against. The ports became integral parts of colonial empires, albeit more informally; a myth emerged that a Shanghai park had a sign, written in English, saying 'No dogs or Chinese allowed'. Although not true many wanted it to be, and in certain areas it practically was true. Ethnicity made a resurgence. Han nationalism started to emerge as the ruling Qing were Manchu - the weakness of China was increasingly blamed on Manchus, and many rebellious organisations, especially the Triads, were made of only Han. Minorities, often referred to as 'Guest Peoples', also began agitating against Manchu rule. Christian missionaries further made their mark - Christian texts were smuggled out of Canton, and later missionaries followed them. The arrival of a new faith shifted how things were understood in China. We will discuss women more in detail elsewhere but the emergence of women's emancipation can be seen during this time. Scholar Li Ruzhen in 1825 wrote <i>Flowers in the Mirror </i>which sees the characters travel to a world where women rule, and they have to have their feet crushed before being confined to the isolation in a critique of how women were treated.</div>
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<b>The Second Opium War</b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQhW3opGLwF6hqN7pDu6PhvJ7uGWcrMhbgBMTDV5fba9qDyAJUtOaxGAhKP8c3GPMZo-Rp3b5mWCiktLtrpVA5YRrhY2VvdUQBtc-2VmJiWQZzmAq-_XjT0njw0ujht1dicWcATFfiEhcj/s1600/450px-La_bataille_de_Palikiao.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="320" data-original-width="450" height="227" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQhW3opGLwF6hqN7pDu6PhvJ7uGWcrMhbgBMTDV5fba9qDyAJUtOaxGAhKP8c3GPMZo-Rp3b5mWCiktLtrpVA5YRrhY2VvdUQBtc-2VmJiWQZzmAq-_XjT0njw0ujht1dicWcATFfiEhcj/s320/450px-La_bataille_de_Palikiao.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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In the 1850s and 1860s the Qing faced major military actions - another war against Europeans, and three major revolts. Britain, America, France, and, to an extent, Russia were seeking treaty reform with the Qing - their expanding economies wanted even more domination over China. In 1856 they got their excuse. Searching for opium shipments China was accused of raiding a British ship in Hong Kong called the <i>Arrow</i>, so to 'defend' themselves Britain went to war. Initially set back by the 1857 Indian Rebellion, which can be read about <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2019/04/world-history-britain-in-india.html">here</a>, Canton was captured in December 1857 and its governor-general exiled to Calcutta. This shows how much Britain viewed China as its colony - it felt powerful enough to exile another state's officials. Capturing the Dagu forts in the far north the road to Beijing was open so a new treaty was signed. The 1858 Treaty of Tianjin destroyed Chinese autonomy - Christian missionaries were allowed free access to the country, four treaty ports would be opened when the rebellions were crushed, six would immediately be opened, communication would only be done in English, and the character <i>yi </i>(barbarian) was banned. One of the negotiators, Prince Gong, would be inspired by this treaty to bring change to China. However, not everyone at court accepted this and fighting continued.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjuDb9U3jlerr2zp9NKEiHLzskTaIJhAWaAcfo1MRI8JaMhtE-YXC9pDQzhsi2jGQkPe4fEyCjp_P4z3OvCD0IAr7GXylmgD8xmlpmNW9wAPcOy7p5dSm-QpJj9B7JprMWbwVx6nBAEzJie/s1600/download.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="194" data-original-width="259" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjuDb9U3jlerr2zp9NKEiHLzskTaIJhAWaAcfo1MRI8JaMhtE-YXC9pDQzhsi2jGQkPe4fEyCjp_P4z3OvCD0IAr7GXylmgD8xmlpmNW9wAPcOy7p5dSm-QpJj9B7JprMWbwVx6nBAEzJie/s1600/download.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Yuanmingyuan today</td></tr>
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The second half of the war came to an end in 1860 but was devastating for China. It, arguably, was the most devastating part of the Century of Humiliation until the Rape of Nanjing in 1937. Anglo-French forces wanted to punish China for daring to rebel against the Treaty of Tianjin, so they opted to destroy a cultural icon when they reached Beijing. Originally the Forbidden Palace was chosen as the residence of the emperor, but this was scrapped in favour of the Summer Palaces. As mentioned when we discussed the Qing, the Summer Palaces were one of the greatest icons of Chinese culture. The army destroyed the Yuanmingyuan and looted the Yiheyuan destroying centuries of Chinese culture. The Yuanmingyuan remains destroyed to this day as a symbol of imperialism, and if you visit a museum in Britain or France today and see a Chinese artefact obtained, or dated, from the 1850s/1860s it was looted from the Yiheyuan. The destruction of the Summer Palaces still is a deep rupture in Chinese culture and political thinking. In 1860 the Convention of Beijing made China an informal part of the Euro-American empires: the Treaty of Tianjin was to be ratified, an indemnity of up to 16 million taels had to be paid, opium was legalised, Kowloon was ceded to Britain, and Tianjian (which was close to Beijing) was open to trade. This was not the end of China's troubles.</div>
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<b>The Nian and Muslim Revolts</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0AMoBKW_mDsFwgZ0Jj5iAS_giDA16mBP3xAEhNuY3uKG_RDMjvs_bqx6HtpMSkbFkWF9Qk9xnLPvIywFnYxwLerU3gTT4ynMYxpR26bdA6iMwxU6aVXpsXetGDiOXwzK-86ijSHj0EPuO/s1600/Li_Hung_Chang_in_1896.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1545" data-original-width="1063" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0AMoBKW_mDsFwgZ0Jj5iAS_giDA16mBP3xAEhNuY3uKG_RDMjvs_bqx6HtpMSkbFkWF9Qk9xnLPvIywFnYxwLerU3gTT4ynMYxpR26bdA6iMwxU6aVXpsXetGDiOXwzK-86ijSHj0EPuO/s320/Li_Hung_Chang_in_1896.jpg" width="220" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Li Hongzhang in 1896</td></tr>
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Although these revolts occurred concurrently with, or after, the Taiping I want to quickly discuss them here. Originating in the north, the Nian Revolt had its roots in the earlier White Lotus Rebellions. The Nian were raiders who took in poor or former peasants, and following floods in Jiangsu in 1851 their numbers boomed. Despite only numbering between 30,000 to 50,000 troops their access to firearms and ability to isolate Beijing while government forces were fighting the Taiping allowed them to be powerful. Their leader Zhang Luoxing became popular thanks to his raiding on other areas to feed local villages, and his attempts to curb rape and raiding. Even though Zhang was killed by General Senggelinqin at Anhui the Nian continued in 1863 the Nian Rebellion continued for another five years. Senggelinqin's massacres of the population became coupled with his continuous falling into traps helped the rebellion drag on. He was replaced by Zeng Guofan, who was integral in toppling to Taiping, and even he failed to defeat them, so his protege Li Hongzhang was given control. Li managed to defeat the Nian in 1868. Meanwhile, heavy taxation and expulsions of Muslims from their land to access mines led to revolts in the west from 1862. Another scholar turned general, Zuo Zongtang, was instrumental in putting it down. Zeng, Li, and Zuo will become very important in our next World History post.</div>
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<b>The Taiping </b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcD0VuE6C-L-2B8u5HTOIGm5fPuo0pqsWOWZkO7kEgjViY38GYgZq5TjyWsdGvq9ycgH866gIKuIE5LuSPfnxYw16tTh-0gB_Z0fQ7o6vSqHwzBNBG-kS7vAf70crLJtJLlL4uHb59Eh8R/s1600/5-The-Taiping-Rebellion.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="450" data-original-width="800" height="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcD0VuE6C-L-2B8u5HTOIGm5fPuo0pqsWOWZkO7kEgjViY38GYgZq5TjyWsdGvq9ycgH866gIKuIE5LuSPfnxYw16tTh-0gB_Z0fQ7o6vSqHwzBNBG-kS7vAf70crLJtJLlL4uHb59Eh8R/s320/5-The-Taiping-Rebellion.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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The Taiping Rebellion remains one of the bloodiest events in history causing up to 30 million people to be killed. It began in a strange way. A member of the Hakka minority Hong Xiuquan was born in the very poor province of Guangxi. His family worked hard to allow their son to go for the examinations, something very difficult for a minority and peasants, but he would end up failing the exams four times. As a young man he had been introduced to Christianity by American missionary Edwin Stevens, theorised by Spence as we're not actually sure, but after having strange dreams years later inspired him to read the text. Hong had dreams where two golden haired men, calling him son and brother, had visited him, and he realised that they were God and Jesus. Hong believed himself to be the son of God, and younger brother of Jesus, who would throw down the corrupt Manchu. Isolated from the rest of China, his influence quickly garnered over 10,000 followers. His harsh criticisms of the Manchu, calling them demons sent by the devil, and preaches of equality, inspired by Christianity, caused his following to grow. In 1850 Lin Zexu was brought back from exile but died on the way to fight Hong, and his successor was roundly defeated. On January 11, 1851 Hong Xiuquan declared himself the Heavenly King of the Taiping Tianguo. In 1853 he took Nanjing and ruled there for a decade. </div>
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The Taiping Tianguo was a state of contrasts. While sexes were rigidly segregated it offered a way to grant women increasing independence. As Hakka women did not bind their feet it allowed them to bolster their armies where Su Sanniang became one of the most important generals of the Taiping. Ono Kazuko has further emphasised how women had considerable power in choosing who they married. This did not mean that women were truly equal - Hong did promote men over women, and said <i>'Can the Chinese even consider themselves men?' </i>as they had been conquered by the Qing. There were attempts to rebuild society - opium addiction was successfully dealt with, dancing was banned, exams became based on Christianity, a communal bank was opened, and Hong tried to redistribute land equally in the most ambitious land policy until the communists of the 1950s. Why then, despite ruling from Nanjing with a population of over 30 million, did the Taiping fail to oust the Qing? Jonathan Spence identifies several reasons. Hong declared other generals 'kings' but the most capable were killed early on or tried to challenge Hong for power - Yang Xiuqing was killed in a palace coup in 1856 and Shi Dakai was killed by the Qing in 1863 when he tried to form his own kingdom. Losing key allies Hong's rule became increasingly erratic and inefficient. For this reason his land policy fell through losing support of the peasantry. Hong's isolation and aestheticism prevented collaboration with other revolts - his rigid rules in Nanjing alienated many Han. Although Euro-American powers initially toyed with supporting the Taiping in order to create a Christian China, Hong's view on Christianity put them off - the person who converted Hong, American missionary Issacher Roberts, distanced himself from Hong. The 'Ever-Victorious Army' under Auguste Protet and Charles Gordon allied with Qing officials, like Zeng Guofan, to fight the Taiping. Protet would be killed, but Gordon would be Christened 'Chinese Gordon' - he would later be killed trying to put down an anti-colonial rebellion in Sudan. In 1864 Hong died - either from suicide or eating a poisoned mushroom - as Nanjing was starving, people had resorted to eating grass and their dead. With him the Taiping Tianguo came to a close.</div>
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<b>Conclusion and Next Time</b></div>
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The first half of the 1800s would be used by reformers to bring change to China. Those involved in the Opium Wars and rebellions would see their defeats as a way to 'modernise' China - the self-strengthening movement would soon emerge. Reform would lead to revolution, and the eventual collapse of the Chinese Empire. Observing the Second Opium War and Taiping Tianguo Karl Marx would observe how institutional government came under threat by the greed of colonial exploitation, and how a revolutionary China would break the international system exploiting it. He would reflect that European conservatives would one day flee from the proletariat hoping to find refuge in a conservative power only to find written on the Great Wall, <i>'Chinese Republic: Liberty, Equality, Fraternity'</i>. Before then we have to see the successes and failures of reform, Sun Yat-sen, more colonial exploitation, rebellions, Chinese communities abroad, and civil war.</div>
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The sources used are as follows:</div>
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-Jonathan Spence, <i>In Search for Modern China</i>, (New York: 1990)</div>
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-Ono Kazuko, <i>Chinese Women in a Century of Revolution, 1850-1950</i>, (Stanford: 1978)</div>
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-Immanuel Hsu, <i>The Rise of Modern China</i>, Sixth Edition, (New York: 2000)</div>
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-Kumari Jayawardena, <i>Feminism and Nationalism in the Third World</i>, (London: 1986)</div>
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-Frances Wood, <i>No Dogs and Not Many Chinese, Treaty Port Life in China, 1843-1943</i>, (London: 1998)</div>
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-Chun-tu Hsueh, (ed.), <i>The Chinese Revolution of 1911: New Perspectives</i>, (Hong Kong: 1983)</div>
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-Jonathan Spence, <i>God's Chinese Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan</i>, (New York: 1996)</div>
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Thank you for reading, and for other World History posts please see our list <a href="http://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/p/world-history.html">here</a>. For future blog updates please see our <a href="https://www.facebook.com/TwibyHistoryGeekStuff/">Facebook</a> or catch me on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/lewistwiby?lang=en">@LewisTwiby</a>.</div>
Lewis Twibyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03565517444017278980noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6707020941988899278.post-83078139538091919732019-12-08T10:53:00.002-08:002019-12-08T10:53:59.717-08:00Comics Explained: Victor Zsasz <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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Batman over the years has had many twisted and sadistic villains over the years, and one good example of them is Victor Zsasz. Since his debut in 1992 Zsasz has never been close to one of Batman's main villains, but he has been in the background fairly often. Especially since his extremely brief appearance in the movie <i>Batman Begins</i>, he has steadily been appearing more and more. He regularly appeared in the hit video game series <i>Batman:Arkham</i>, has featured in the TV show <i>Gotham</i>, and is set to appear in the upcoming <i>Birds of Prey </i>movie. </div>
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<b>Origins</b></div>
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In the grand scheme of Batman's publication history Zsasz is a very recent addition - he first debuted in <i>Batman: Shadow of the Bat #1 </i>in 1992. Created by Alan Grant and Norm Breyfogle he was initially disturbing serial killer, as the main focus of the story was the ongoing renovations on Arkham Asylum and the new warden Jeremiah Arkham vowing to 'cure' a chained Batman. Zsasz was noticeable as his body was covered in scars forming tally marks - it was later revealed that each tally represented a person murdered by him. This was part of a story called <i>The Last Arkham </i>- it turned out that Zsasz had been manipulating Jeremiah Arkham, and had managed to bribe a contractor while the asylum was being restored to build a passage out of his cell. During the day, Zsasz would slowly chip away at Arkham's sanity, and at night he would leave to commit further murders. Batman and Commissioner Gordon made a plan getting Batman committed where he could search for clues on the inside. Although Zsasz was stopped, whenever a breakout happened his killing spree started again.</div>
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<i>Batman Chronicles #3 </i>later told how Victor Zsasz became who he was. Like Bruce Wayne he was born into a life of luxury. His owned his own international corporation, and received further funding from his incredibly wealthy parents. However, aged 25, they were killed driving him into a deep depression. Unlike Bruce Wayne, who became the Batman, Zsasz turned to gambling to take his mind off of his depression, but this became an addiction. He spent days upon days at the Iceberg Lounge - a club and casino owned by the Penguin. Seeing an easy mark the Penguin kept challenging to games which made Victor lose more and more of his money. Eventually, Zsasz lost everything, and stumbling away from the club decided that he was destined for suicide. While attempting to jump from Gotham Bridge, a desperate mugger came at him with a knife. Instead, Zsasz grabbed the weapon and used it to end the mugger's life. In that moment - seeing the life leave the eyes of the mugger - everything changed. He saw nothing and meaningless in the eyes of the mugger, and viewed his murder of the man as bringing him a 'gift'. He realised that he was the only actual human, everyone else were 'zombies' and he had to liberate them. As a sign that he had liberated someone, and to prove that he was the only real human, he carved a tally into his skin. Now, he commits murders and places the victims in real-life positions so they could be 'real' in death. After every kill he carved another tally onto himself. In later stories it was revealed that Zsasz would have a breakdown if he couldn't leave his mark or kill someone - often saying that he 'has to have the mark'/</div>
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<b>Knightfall and No Man's Land</b></div>
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In <i>Knightfall</i>, to break Batman both mentally and physically Bane released all the inmates from Arkham Asylum - everyone from the Joker to the Mad Hatter were released. One of those to escape was Zsasz. He broke into an all-girls boarding school taking them all hostage. As they were the daughters of Gotham's elite he wanted to make a statement by 'liberating' such high-class zombies. Even when the girls tried to overpower him he remained strong - Zsasz is very strong once dislocating Batman's shoulder in <i>Detective Comics #368</i>. The two police officers who were sent in to get him were also killed by the serial killer. By this time Batman was becoming increasingly exhausted hunting down escaped villains, so the agile and strong Zsasz proved to be a match. The killer's taunts started driving Batman to the edge causing him to snap and savagely beat the killer after he suggested that they were the same. Kevin Smith in 2008 would explain this in <i>Batman: Cacophony </i>as Batman hates Zsasz the most for his outlook on people and life. It took detective Renee Montoya dragging Batman off of the killer to stop the beating.</div>
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In <i>No Man's Land </i>Gotham experienced an earthquake isolating it from the rest of the country, so the villains took over. Poison Ivy, Joker, Bane, and Mr. Freeze were just some of the villains to take over parts of Gotham. Zsasz similarly claimed an area to kill as he pleased. Being one serial killer facing off against super-powered individuals and gangs meant he was soon injured and sent to Dr. Leslie Thompkins's field hospital. Her good nature and care started shattering Zsasz's worldview. In Thompkins there was evidence that people were not simply empty vessels - they were hopeful and good. As he couldn't cope with this shift in perception he decided to ignore and run away from the field hospital.</div>
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<b>With Other Villains</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjp0d6nOdTSEQlcCqycgHhBlNRizpsWDFREcvqbFQf8HLcQjivQenljjzH21y-ZS4EFXS8o9cWkm6gPhoF8_KeZhlMjBc0GoVtzXWrWix_Xicwp4NNZQCUWDOsxDOmmPu5ahi70lGM8aKCI/s1600/tumblr_osn3h7Tg7v1t9kn95o2_1280.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="982" data-original-width="1280" height="245" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjp0d6nOdTSEQlcCqycgHhBlNRizpsWDFREcvqbFQf8HLcQjivQenljjzH21y-ZS4EFXS8o9cWkm6gPhoF8_KeZhlMjBc0GoVtzXWrWix_Xicwp4NNZQCUWDOsxDOmmPu5ahi70lGM8aKCI/s320/tumblr_osn3h7Tg7v1t9kn95o2_1280.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Part of Riddler's gang with Scarecrow, Deathstroke, Two-Face, Firefly, Killer Croc and Clayface</td></tr>
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Zsasz has occasionally ran with other villains, but his nihilistic and homicidal view on humanity means that he is often kept at arm's length. After Batman was killed by Darkseid a new story called <i>Battle for the Cowl </i>began. During this a new Black Mask, later revealed to be Jeremiah Arkham, managed to hire Zsasz as one of the members of his new gang. With a large amount of money he let Zsasz purchase a warehouse which could host battles-to-the-death between Gotham's runaway or kidnapped child population. Children would be forced to fight one another with the provision that the last one standing could fight Zsasz and earn their freedom. This enraged Damian Wayne, Bruce's son and the new Robin, who became traumatised seeing the bodies of the dead children. Damian was not raised by Bruce so was very willing to kill, and he almost killed Zsasz by slashing him with a sword before kicking him into the river. He would survive and continue working with Black Mask, and would sometimes move away to continue killing by himself. In 2017 DC published the <i>War of Jokes and Riddles </i>story - told in flashback it tells a Gotham wide gang war between Joker and the Riddler. More and more villains ended up picking a side; Zsasz would end up joining Riddler's gang.</div>
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Thank you for reading. For other blog posts please see our <a href="https://www.facebook.com/TwibyHistoryGeekStuff/">Facebook</a> or catch me on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/lewistwiby?lang=en">@LewisTwiby</a>.</div>
Lewis Twibyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03565517444017278980noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6707020941988899278.post-63570285356657593412019-12-01T10:56:00.000-08:002019-12-01T10:56:45.027-08:00Comics Explained: The Anti-Monitor<div style="text-align: justify;">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiyJ9VY0QP0W-EqWW-HyKrht5I0BIj0sZgHhzQoaBVdortrZgrUmIlpbkKcCNNDPA6oueFjI2CkFZtMvW03_oqo_Aaer-U0HPRLs-C24WNqDUaKwLl-kNvXl1lH-q_HCAXeq9_RrhNEC7qo/s1600/crisis-on-infinite-earths-anti-monitor_0.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="464" data-original-width="825" height="179" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiyJ9VY0QP0W-EqWW-HyKrht5I0BIj0sZgHhzQoaBVdortrZgrUmIlpbkKcCNNDPA6oueFjI2CkFZtMvW03_oqo_Aaer-U0HPRLs-C24WNqDUaKwLl-kNvXl1lH-q_HCAXeq9_RrhNEC7qo/s320/crisis-on-infinite-earths-anti-monitor_0.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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A new crossover is happening between the DC TV shows based off of one of DC's best known stories - <i>Crisis on Infinite Earths</i>. This story featured the debut of the Anti-Monitor - a being so powerful that he destroyed thousands to millions of alternate versions of powered beings across the Multiverse. In DC, there is possibly an infinite number of universes (although this has changed regularly) called the <a href="https://historyandgeekstuff.blogspot.com/2018/04/comics-explained-dc-multiverse.html">Multiverse</a>, and the Anti-Monitor went from reality to reality destroying them all. The Anti-Monitor was the main antagonist of the event, and today we're looking at him.</div>
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<b>Origins</b></div>
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The Anti-Monitor was created by Marv Wolfman, George Perez, and Jerry Ordway, and debuted in <i>Crisis on Infinite Earths #2 </i>as the main antagonist for their story in 1985. By the 1980s DC wanted to reboot its universe for a new generation - they feared that up to fifty years of stories spanning several universes would be too daunting for new readers. As a result, our three authors were brought in to reinvent the DC multiverse, but to create a new reality they had to destroy the old one - and the Anti-Monitor was the one to do this. </div>
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The Anti-Monitor was created through a somewhat convoluted way. Many, many years ago, on the planet Oa, a scientist named Krona performed an illegal experiment in order to see the origins of the universe - instead his machine exploded shattering the universe and forming the multiverse. The denizens of Oa became divided about how to go on, and a civil war broke out. One faction went to one of the new universes called the Anti-Monitor Universe, some of those who remained became the Guardians of the Universe - who themselves formed the Green Lanterns. Those who went to the Anti-Matter Universe settled on the planet Qward where of being of anti-matter was formed called the Anti-Monitor. Gaining consciousness he grew increasingly powerful by absorbing the energy of that universe, and he enslaved the people of Qward forming his army called the Thunderers. However, in the original universe, off of the planet Oa a being a positive matter, called the Monitor, came into being. Sensing his opposite the Anti-Monitor began a million year long campaign to eventually wipe out his opponent. Eventually, both the Anti-Monitor and Monitor went into hibernation for billions of years - both absorbing the energy from their respective universes.</div>
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<b>Crisis on Infinite Earths</b><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhLvlQLeyVjsWya9p22BCH-eijFr2ZVuLSx54mjampjk9Dom9ISJscMVDxmL1nMc183i7WHhh2TCVlG25_ew16e1oqAG_tMyIGPJSTnlP0wStO-P_qLzFPo-52Vfh4IF6xPK14_JLOdXViG/s1600/anti-monitor-comics.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="879" data-original-width="670" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhLvlQLeyVjsWya9p22BCH-eijFr2ZVuLSx54mjampjk9Dom9ISJscMVDxmL1nMc183i7WHhh2TCVlG25_ew16e1oqAG_tMyIGPJSTnlP0wStO-P_qLzFPo-52Vfh4IF6xPK14_JLOdXViG/s320/anti-monitor-comics.jpg" width="243" /></a></div>
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After billions of years in hibernation a scientist called Kell Mossa hoped to see the origins of everything, and he managed to see a giant hand reaching onto an abyss forming new worlds. This came at a price. His home world was destroyed, and he saw the Anti-Monitor awaken. He was saved last minute by the Monitor who named him the 'Pariah' and given the power to travel across parallel universes. Wanting to destroy the Monitor he began destroying positive matter realities which would bring more energy into the anti-matter universe, and make him more powerful. The Anti-Monitor was unstoppable, so to prevent him from destroying everything the Monitor made preparations to prevent the destruction of five realities - Earth-One (the main reality), Earth-Two (DC's Golden Age reality), Earth-S (Captain Marvel's reality), Earth-X (the Freedom Fighters' reality), and Earth-Four (the reality of Blue Beetle, the Question and a few others). The Anti-Monitor attacked these worlds and even managed to finally kill the Monitor after enlisting the aid of the emotion-manipulating villain Psycho-Pirate, and reconfigured the robotic hero Red Tornado to briefly fight for him. </div>
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Aided by Alex Luthor, the son of Lex Luthor from Earth-Three where he was a hero and not a villain, the heroes went to attack Anti-Monitor at his base. Supergirl almost destroyed the being by breaking his shell, but he killed her by focusing all his energy onto her. He then finished creating his ultimate weapon to destroy the five universes - the anti-matter cannon. Barry Allen, the Flash, then ran faster than the speed of light to destroy both the cannon and himself - he would remain dead for a good thirty years with Wally West taking over as the Flash. Through insane story plots the Anti-Monitor transported all the heroes and villains to the dawn of the multiverse, where it was revealed that it was his hand, and that of God's wrath personified, the Spectre, which Pariah saw. Through various reality and time spanning battles the extra-dimensional villain Darkseid shot the Anti-Monitor into the sun! Even then this did not properly kill him - he shot out of the star as an energy sphere. The Superman of Earth-Two, also overpowered as Kryptonians get more power the closer they are to the sun, shattered him into molecules. In the aftermath of the Crisis almost all the universes were destroyed, the five remaining ones were merged into one forming the New Earth. From 1985 to <i>Flashpoint </i>in 2011 this would be the sole reality, more or less, in the multiverse.</div>
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<b>Infinite Crisis and the Return of the Multiverse</b></div>
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Grant Morrison is a fantastic writer and is fond of over-the-top stories, so he wanted to bring back the multiverse. The <i>Infinite Crisis </i>story of 2005 brought back the multiverse in typical Morrison fashion. He established that those who witnessed the final destruction of the Anti-Monitor were not really lost when the old multiverse finally was destroyed - instead they were watching the events of the new universe from a quasi-heaven. In this reality there were Superman and Lois Lane of Earth-Two, Alex Luthor of Earth-Three, and the narcissistic Superboy-Prime of Earth-Prime. The insane Superboy-Prime viewed the heroes of New Earth as false heroes, and managed to punch a hole in reality freeing them from their pocket universe! This punch had ripples across the universe, such as resurrecting the dead second Robin Jason Todd, and it brought back the multiverse. During this the remains of the Anti-Monitor were used as a 'tuning fork' to recreate the frequencies which the previous universes vibrated on, with the intention that this would recreate their universes - even if it meant destroying New Earth. Superboy-Prime ended up messing up their own plan. His battle with Superboy caused them to crash into the tower they were using wrecking the tuning fork with it.</div>
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<b>Return</b><br />
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As the events of <i>Infinite Crisis </i>brought back the multiverse it also brought back the energy which Anti-Monitor fed on. This resurrected him, and one of the worst people possible took advantage of this. Sinestro had broken off from the Green Lanterns and harnessed the power of fear forming the new Sinestro Corps. Rebuilding Anti-Monitor's body he became Sinestro's 'Guardian of Fear', and by default one of the most powerful beings in the universe. The fear the universe had of him became a way to power the rings of the Sinestro Corps permanently. However, after battling the Green Lanterns he crashed landed on the planet Ryut in Sector 666 of the universe - the Green Lanterns had divided the entire universe into different sectors, and 666 had long been abandoned. Krona had used the precursors of the Green Lanterns, the Manhunters, to commit a genocide on Ryut, and this set the stage for one of the oldest prophecies in the universe. The Green Lanterns knew that one day an event known as 'Blackest Night' would come along, and the crashed Anti-Monitor provided the energy for this.</div>
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A voice commanded him to rise and he did so becoming trapped in a lantern power battery - the object which grants lanterns the energy for them to function. This was the Black Lantern Power Battery, and it would prove the springboard for the Black Night. The battery was brought to Earth where it was used to power the Black Lanterns - their power rings resurrected the dead to destroy the living. The bolster their power their leader, Nekron, sent out rings to turn the resurrected into Black Lanterns - including the Anti-Monitor. However, by doing this to such a powerful being it allowed him to break out from the Lantern Battery. During the Brightest Day he was resurrected, but has rarely appeared since then. One of the times was at the end of the <i>Forever Evil </i>story where he tried to enslave the New Gods and finally killed Darkseid. </div>
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Thank you for reading. For future blog updates please see our <a href="https://www.facebook.com/TwibyHistoryGeekStuff/">Facebook</a> or catch me on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/lewistwiby?lang=en">@LewisTwiby</a>.</div>
Lewis Twibyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03565517444017278980noreply@blogger.com0