Who was Nelson Mandela?

As of writing a few days ago we saw the centenary of the birth of anti-Apartheid, and former South African president, Nelson Mandela. Mandela had a great impact on South African and global politics before, during and after his imprisonment, and has continued to serve as a source of inspiration for people across the globe. I would personally consider Mandela as being one of my idols. I would also recommend reading my other article on Mandela's wife and fellow anti-Apartheid activist Winnie Madikizela-Mandela for any extra information which I may have left out of this article.

Early Life

Mandela was a Xhosa born 18 July 1918 in the little village of Mvezo along the banks of the Mbashe River in Cape Province in the south of South Africa. He was given the name Rolihlahla meaning 'pulling the branch of a tree', or more colloquially 'troublemaker' which friends and relatives would joke was foreshadowing to his future fate. When Mandela was born the South African government had began stripping the rights from black Africans and Indians thirty years before the official start of Apartheid. The African National Congress (ANC), formed 1912, had sent a delegation to the Versailles peace conference in order to voice the grievances of black South Africans. Although Mandela was born into a very rural village as he was born into the royal family he was eligible to serve as a councillor as his father had done before him. At a young age his religious mother sent him to a Methodist school where his teacher, Miss Mdingane, gave him the name Nelson which Mandela believed to possibly be a reference to Lord Nelson. When not at school he helped raise cattle with his mother and sisters becoming deeply engaged in Thembu culture until the death of his father when he was aged nine. After that his mother took him to Thembuland's provincial capital, Mqhekezweni, to live with Chief Jongintaba Dalindyebo who was the acting regent of the Thembu. Despite Jongintaba's awe inspiring appearance he took in the young Nelson raising him with his own children, the son and heir Justice and his sister Nomafu. Nelson soon attached himself to the elder Justice as they learnt English, Xhosa, history (especially African) and geography. While at Mqhekezweni he became more religious thanks to the local Methodist Revenrand Matyolo. Furthermore, Mandela's early education would slowly start to influence his later views. Watching the discussions between Jongintaba and local chiefs helped install a devotion to democracy and hearing local chief's stories planted the seeds of an African nationalist. At this stage though he still viewed white presence as being a necessary evil and his devotion to the royalty persisted for years. In Xhosa culture it was believed that one could only become a man if he was circumcised so at age 16 the regent had Mandela go through the ceremony at Tyhalarha on the banks of the Mbashe.

A young Mandela

After the ceremony the regent said to Mandela: 'It is not for you to spend your life mining the white man's gold, never knowing how to write your name'. Wanting him to truly become a councillor for Justice later in life he sent Mandela to higher education, the first being Clarkebury Boarding Institute. It was there that Mandela first met a white person. He had occasionally seen white people at Mqhekezweni but it was only at Clarkebury that he properly met one; the school governor, Reverend Harris, was a 'white Thembu' as he apparently 'loved and understood the Thembu people' despite running a tight ship. At Clarkebury he was shocked thinking that his relation to royalty would earn him respect but in reality he was mocked for his country accent. At the age of 19 he then went to Healdtown, a Methodist college at Fort Beaufort, which once acted as a British military outpost. Imperialism and nationalism blended at Healdtown, the governor Reverend Arthur Wellington (who claimed that he was a descendent of Lord Wellington), where Mandela became enraptured by British history and geography while also engaging in Xhosa culture winning an prize in 1938 for an essay written in Xhosa. There he made friends with future ANC activists and his first non-Xhosa friends including the Sotho-speaking Zachariah Molete. It was only when he went to do his BA at Fort Hare, a small university which was unique for allowing blacks to attend. Fort Hare became a centre for the intellectual black South African elite and many members of the ANC, Communist party and African liberation movements (including Robert Mugabe and Julius Nyerere) would pass through its doors at some time or another. Mandela loved Fort Hare developing his lifelong love for running and boxing as some of his friends became involved with anti-racism protests, ANC activism, and at times even pro-communist events. At this stage Mandela was supportive of Britain but unlike other aristocrats he was kind and considerate to the non-aristocrats at the university. 

When returning to Mqhekezweni in 1940 he and Justice found out the regent had arranged marriages for them so they ran away to Johannesburg. While in the city Mandela got a job as a night watchmen in the Crown Mines and there he saw some of the worst of South African racism and capitalism. Mining companies kept contact with local chiefs in order to continue a wave of cheap labour, tribal hierarchies were reproduced (Justice was always treated as royalty), different groups were segregated, and working conditions were poor. Mandela was soon fired after the headman found out that he was a runaway. He soon came into contact with ANC member Walter Sisulu who would become a lifetime friend of Mandela. As he had studied law Sisulu got Mandela a job at the law firm ran by a white liberal Jew called Lazar Sidelsky - like in the US many South African Jews saw racism and antisemitism as being linked together. At the law firm he properly became interested in politics thanks to a Xhosa communist, Gaur Radebe, and a Jewish communist who became his first white friend, Nat Bregman. Ironically years later Radebe would become anti-communist while Mandela started defending communists in the ANC. He started becoming more interested in wider African nationalism over simply Xhosa as he lived in the city of Alexandra as he studied for a BA from the University of South Africa at night. With little money he often had to walk home and study by candlelight but had the benefit of a communal feeling learning about Zulu, Sotho and Swazi culture (he even briefly dated a Swazi girl). He also started visiting communist meetings being impressed at how blacks, whites, Indians, and 'coloureds' (Mixed race) were together although he disagreed with how they reduced social issues to class and their atheism. In 1941 he was visited by the regent who forgave him for running away before passing away greatly affecting Mandela. 

ANC Activism

Mandela and Oliver Tambo

In 1943 Mandela joined the University of Witwatersrand to study law and as he was the only black student he faced intense racism. They weren't openly racist but Mandela put it the best way possible: 'No one uttered the word "kaffir"; their hostility was more muted, but I felt it just the same'. It was at Witwatersrand that Mandela met many ANC, Indian and communist activists including the later leaders of the South African Communist Party (SACP) Joe Slovo and Ruth First. In 1943 Mandela joined in with the bus boycotts resulting in a reversal of the fare increases and at Sisulu's request joined the ANC. Mandela would meet ANC member Anton Lembede who represented the Africanist branch of the ANC who believed that blacks should not work with non-blacks. Despite having non-black friends Mandela was influenced by this believing that blacks should be independent and that Indians and communists were too interested in their own communities or class. He and Lembede would form the ANC Youth League (ANCYL) a year later. Following the end of the Second World War institutional racism strengthened, especially to Indians, and anti-communism skyrocketed. Indian protests by figures like Dr. Yusuf Dadoo and Ahmed Kathrada did partially convince Mandela that an alliance with Indians could work. Mandela started becoming more and more involved with the ANC becoming ANCYL secretary when Lembede suddenly died and was replaced by the more moderate but articulate Peter Mda. In 1948 the political situation worsened. Daniel Malan's National Party came to power; the Nationalists were deeply racialist and were determined to separate different races. Their policy was called 'Apartheid'. Mandela had to devote himself so much to politics that he ended up failing his final exam three times before Witwatersrand refused him to resit in 1949.

Mandela and Evelyn at their wedding

While this was happening Mandela became a family man. While visiting Walter Sisulu Mandela met his cousin, Evelyn Mase. Evelyn was a Xhosa from rural Transkei and who was orphaned at the age of 12 when he mother passed, the father (a mineworker) died when she was an infant. She started training to be a nurse which is how she met Nelson. The two quickly fell in love and were married in 1944. The new couple had little money having to move in with her brother but they were happy. She said that 'Everyone we knew said that we made a very good couple'. Oliver Tambo's wife Adelaide also said that 'Many wives envied Evelyn for her man who was dedicated to the family and brought food in town to take home'. A year after they were married Evelyn had their first child, a son called Thembekile ('Thembi'). Nelson's mother and sister soon moved in with them. Unfortunately their first daughter, Makaziwe, was born ill and passed at just nine months. To honour her their second daughter was named Makaziwe in traditional Xhosa fashion. In 1950 they had their second son, Makgatho. 

1950 saw Mandela made president of the ANCYL and was brought onto the ANC's national executive. A strike was organised for black workers on May Day which Mandela actually opposed; as it was multi-racial and not ANC-led he opposed it but seeing its success his opposition to it started to ebb as a result. However, following the strike the Suppression of Communism Act was passed which defined communism as anything that wanted to change society through direct action or encouraging 'feelings of hostility between the European and the non-European races'. This affected most civil rights groups across South African society and the government used it very readily to silence opposition. As a result this brought many together, although it took a while for Mandela to be convinced. His friend and communist general secretary, Moses Kotane, convinced him to read Marx, Lenin and Mao and seeing the USSR's assistance to anti-imperialism he started to be won over by Marxism and cooperation with non-blacks and non-ANC groups. In 1952 the ANC joined the Defiance Campaign in order to challenge Apartheid. Inspired by Gandhi the Defiance Campaign aimed to use nonviolent protests and speeches to tackle Apartheid and although Mandela saw this as being more pragmatic he became heavily involved giving speeches including one at Durban to a crowd of 10,000. Thousands joined the ANC as a result and Mandela soon gained an image for his fiery rabble rousing speeches. The Campaign greatly angered the Apartheid state and used the Suppression of Communism Act to crack down on the activists. Over two years 8,000 were arrested including Mandela, Dadoo and Sisulu in 1952. He was banned from attending meetings so the ANC placed the 'Mandela Plan' or 'M-Plan' in case the ANC was banned. Mandela's 'No Easy Walk to Freedom' speech was read out to the ANC rally in Transvaal detailing his views and plans to turn the ANC into smaller cells if it got banned. Despite this Mandela and Oliver Tambo formed their own law firm to help the black community affected by police brutality and other aspects of the Apartheid state. 

Nelson and Winnie

However, Mandela's marriage started breaking down. His own infidelities and Evelyn becoming a Jehovah's Witness which argued against direct confrontation caused the two to drift apart. The added strain of Mandela's activities, his law firm, and the Treason Trial added further stress to the family. In 1958 the couple divorced causing stress to both and greatly upset Thembi in particular. Mandela would write how Thembi would sleep in his bed next to him due to the divorce. Following his divorce in 1958 he soon found love again. Mandela described this in Long Walk to Freedom:  'I drove a friend from Orlando to the medical school at the University of Witwatersrand and went past Baragwanath Hospital, the leading black hospital in Johannesburg. As I passed a nearby bus stop, I noticed out of the corner of my eye a lovely young woman waiting for the bus. I was struck by her beauty.' She later visited his legal firm and the two started talking. She was the daughter of two teachers from the Eastern Cape. Winnie Madikizela had a history of political activism so knew about Mandela. The two soon married and within two years the couple had two daughters, Zenani and Zindzi. 

Trials, Exile and MK

Not deterred by the bans after the Defiance Campaign the ANC continued on. There were some splits - the PAC was one who were firmly Africanist compared to the ANC. In 1955 when the government tried to move black residents from Sophiatown, a suburb in Johannesburg, to move in whites Mandela organised a protest. Sophiatown was important to urban blacks with it being a centre of urban black culture, similar to Harlem in New York. The strike failed convincing the ANC that violence may have to be needed in the future - Sisulu even asked China for arms but was rejected due to the ANC's size. In 1955 the ANC joined with unions, Indian activists, other Africanists and the underground communists to draft the Freedom Charter. Declaring that 'South Africa belongs to all who live in it, black and white' it called for racial equality before the law, equal rights to vote, and nationalisation of major industries. Clearly inspired by Marxism and radical policies Mandela admitted this saying 'It is a revolutionary document precisely because the changes it envisages cannot be won without breaking up the economic and political set-up of present South Africa'. The government hated this. Mandela had another wave of travel bans imposed on him just as his marriage with Evelyn ended. In 1956 the 'Treason Trial' began. Mandela and 155 other individuals ranging from unionists to the ANC leadership were arrested on charges of 'high treason' in December 1956 with the state arguing that the Freedom Charter could only be achieved through violence. The trial dragged on for four years seeing protests in favour of the accused, the four National party supporting judges being replaced, Oliver Tambo fleeing abroad, and the strength of the defendants being sapped. In the end the accused were found not guilty in 1961. During this time Mandela's marriage to Evelyn ended with her having custody of their three children and also him marrying Winnie with the birth of both of his daughters with her. The state even arrested Winnie and in 1959 the Africanist PAC split from the ANC.

Protests at the Treason Trial

Despite viewing the PAC as naive Mandela got behind their pass burning protests - black Africans and other minorities were forced to carry around passes. He publicly burnt his in solidarity with the PAC following the 1960 Sharpeville massacre where police shot over 60 protesters. Apartheid was solidifying itself in South Africa. In 1958 Hendrik Verwoerd became prime minister who cast himself as chosen by God and wanted to properly entrench Apartheid into society. Among this was a policy to truly separate the black and white populations - the black population would be divided into 'nations' and given their own 'homelands' regardless whether they had lived for generations. In retaliation Mandela secretly travelled the country despite his travel bans and the abandonment of his family and firm organising support for the ANC's national strike. The press nicknamed him the 'Black Pimpernel' and he was almost was caught a few times by a police who became a virtual military. A treat among black Africans was to leave milk in the sun and then drink the skin; when visiting a white friend they spotted his milk on a window and almost investigated. He was also advised to shave his beard but he refused because he was attached to it - as someone repeatedly told to shave their beard I can definitely sympathise with this part of his life. To Mandela's dismay the three day national strike was a failure. Around this time Mandela joined the Communist party although how devoted to communism he was and how pragmatic his joining was is still debated. The ANC's president Chief Albert Luthuli was very against armed violence to Mandela's dismay but he managed to win him over to form an armed group. Inspired by Castro's Cuban Revolution Mandela, Sisulu and Slovo co-founded Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation, shortened to MK) in 1961 on the anniversary of Castro's victory. Operating from a smallholding called Lilliesleaf in Rivonia it planned a guerrilla campaign of sabotage to avoid civilian casualties. On December 16 1961 on a day when whites celebrated a victory over the Zulu king Dingane in 1838 bombs were set off across Johannesburg and other cities. However, most of the attacks were clumsy and did little to no lasting damage. Officially to not tarnish the ANC's reputation, especially as Chief Luthuli had won the Nobel Peace Prize, MK was independent but in practice it served as the ANC's armed wing.

Mandela addressing a crowd at the Rivonia Trial

Three weeks after MK's formation Mandela crossed the border into Bechuanaland (Botswana) to travel across Africa for six months to get support for MK. When in Ethiopia he also personally underwent military training saying: 'If there was to be guerrilla warfare I wanted to be able to stand and fight with my people and to share the hazards of war with them'. He met many African leaders including Julius Nyerere of Tanganyika (modern Tanzania), Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt and Ahmed Sekou Toure of Guinea. While abroad he met up with Tambo who had also been generating anti-Apartheid support. While in Sierre Leone he was embarrassed when the entire parliament shook his hand and he realised that they thought he was Chief Luthuli. After six months he arrived back in South Africa but after two weeks in July 1962 when he was careless about security travelling from Durban to Johannesburg he was arrested. It has since been found out that the CIA actually helped find Mandela due to his association with communists. The police had no evidence to link Mandela to MK so he was charged at the Rivonia Trial for leaving the country illegally and inciting African workers to illegally strike. A raid on Lilliesleaf got some evidence with several key anti-Apartheid activists being arrested as well including Ahmed Kathrada and Sisulu. The trial went from October 1963 until June 1964  and were initially charged under the Sabotage Act which brought the death penalty with it. Mandela's forceful personality and charisma allowed him to give a three-hour speech called 'I am Prepared to die' inspired by Castro's 'History will Absolve me' speech. He said 'It was only when all else had failed when all channels of peaceful protest had been barred to us, that the decision was made to embark on violent forms of political struggle, and to form Unkhonto we Sizwe. We did so not because we desired such a course but solely because the Government had left us with no other choice'. On June 12 1964 Mandela, then aged 45, with several others including Sisulu and Kathrada were sentenced to life imprisonment. Thus his life as prisoner no. 466/64 began. 

Imprisonment

Mandela became known as the world's most famous political prisoner. The night of the verdict Mandela and the others were flown from Cape Town to Robben Island where they had to collect seaweed and lime. Conditions were appalling. Kept in a 8 foot by 7 foot cell (2.4 x 2.1 m) he had to sleep on a straw mat, eat hard food, work long hours, was forced to not speak to other prisoners, and had to wear shorts. Africans were seen as children so had to wear shorts as they weren't 'adults'. The glare from breaking gravel and collecting lime permanently damaged Mandela's eyes as he and other prisoners were verbally and physically harassed by the guards. Mandela would describe it as the 'Dark Years'. To improve working conditions Mandela and other prisoners organised strikes, including hunger strikes, which had mixed success. They did organise themselves to educate themselves, their protests, and their debates. At one time a guard offered to help liberate Mandela but he was cautious and for good reason - it later transpired that it was a plot to assassinate him. While in prison he did get some privileges, including a course with a London university, but this was at expense of other ones - he received very few family visits and letters were often censored if they were received at all. When Winnie was allowed to visit they had to use code to discuss their lives - for example Nelson would ask how 'Ngutyana' was doing where Ngutyana was Winnie's clan name. When his mother was dying she was allowed a visit in 1968 and tragically shortly after Thembi was killed in a motorcycle accident. He was barred from the funerals of both his mother and son. In between rare visits and the regular work Mandela and other prisoners would engage in debates and lectures which would go on to nuance and temper Mandela's own views. The PAC were deeply affected along with the ANC and South African Indians' Congress so they regularly debated. Some young Xhosa even asked to be circumcised due to Mandela's lectures on Xhosa culture. Reading material was severely censored - War of the Worlds was banned for having 'war' in the title and Little Red Riding Hood was even banned for having 'red' in the title as well.

Mandela in 1966

While outside Apartheid was becoming strengthened, Winnie was arrested at times, and the arrested were soon forgotten about to be eclipsed by a new generation of activists including Steve Biko. Inside the prison the prisoners after years of protest after 1967 managed to get trousers, were allowed games, and had better food. In 1970 the extremely brutal and racist Commander Piet Badenhorst was put in charge of the prison but Mandela managed to get him replaced when he complained of his abuse to visiting judges. In 1975 he and other prisoners were reclassified as Class A giving them extra rights, including the opportunity to send more letters outside to figures like Desmond Tutu. He even started writing his autobiography which would become Long Walk to Freedom but it was discovered and had his rights to his London university revoked. The 1970s saw the hardening of Apartheid sending the new activists to prison creating debates with the younger prisoners. His own words were smuggled outside, such as his condemnation of the Soweto uprising in 1976, allowing more people to hear his words. Mandela's influence on younger activists started scaring the state who in 1982 sent him and other prisoners to Pollsmoor. Conditions at Pollsmoor were better than Robben Island, Mandela had access to 52 letters a year now and could have a garden, but he missed the debates at Robben Island, and he became a martyr. Oliver Tambo had international anti-Apartheid activism focus on Mandela, Nelson would even joke that people thought 'Free' was his first name due to the slogan 'Free Nelson Mandela!'. Hard-right politicians during the last decade of the Cold War, like Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher, encouraged South Africa to keep him and other prisoners imprisoned. At one point Thatcher even called for Mandela's execution! 

In prison Mandela's health was declining. In 1985 he had surgery and he would catch TB forcing him to be moved to Victor Verster where he got his own personal chef whom he developed a friendship with. Outside Apartheid was collapsing. Violence skyrocketed as clashes between the ANC,  other groups, the state and a Zulu conservative party called Inkatha took place; Winnie even had her own group called the 'Mandela United Football Club' which assassinated opponents (including 14-year old Stompie Moeketsi in 1989). The economy was doing appallingly; international boycotts and faults in the South African economic system caused by Apartheid were slowly destroying it. In 1987 the Minister of Justice met with Mandela to negotiate and end to violence but Mandela refused, he said the ANC would only stop violence if the government did. In 1989 he even met with the prime minister, P.W. Botha, who was a fierce supporter of Apartheid but couldn't handle the escalating situation, especially following his stroke. Six weeks later F.W. de Klerk replaced Botha and started the process of legalising the banned parties and releasing prisoners. Finally on February 11 1990 Mandela walked from prison hand-in-hand with Winnie.

Transition and Presidency

Despite Mandela's release Apartheid lingered on for another four years. Mandela and de Klerk met regularly to try and end the violence with little success. Between 1987 and 1990 4,000 were killed in clashes between Inkatha and anti-Apartheid activists in Natal which continued until 1994. It is estimated that about 14,000 died in political violence in the four years between Mandela's arrest and the first multi-racial election. Anthony Sampson has accused de Klerk of encouraging Inkatha and since we have found out that he did indeed do this; violence by the ANC had a police response but violence from Inkatha was ignored. A literal neo-Nazi group was even formed by pro-Apartheid whites called the Afrikaner Weerstand Beweging and an activist called Chris Hani was assassinated in April 1993 by a Polish anti-communist and English-speaking MP who supported Apartheid. Relations between de Klerk and Mandela soon soured as each blamed each other for the violence despite both winning the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993. Of course Mandela was not the only one to help bring down Apartheid. Finally on April 26 1994 Nelson Mandela cast his vote at Ohlange High School in Inanda near Durban in South Africa's first multi-racial election. With a staggering majority Nelson Mandela became the first black president of South Africa and the first president of a new state.

In his typical self-depreciating manor he would joke that he would miss the quiet of prison while president. Mandela's presidency has been seen as being mixed with many individuals, both in and out of the country, seeing him as a sellout. Winnie also criticised his presidency for this reason and it had nothing to do with their divorce. The couple separated in 1992 and were divorced in 1996 as they had drifted apart (according to Mandela) and also due to Winnie's own infidelities and association with violence (according to Martin Meredith). There are two reasons why Mandela's presidency has seen as being a disappointment. The first is the economy. Mandela hoped to have a series of welfare reforms, nationalisation and policies to bring black Africans out of destitution with the intention of using the state's immense wealth to do so. However, he soon found out that years of Apartheid had in fact destroyed the economy, the state had a veneer of wealth which fooled everyone. The second was that Mandela was focused on peace between minorities and whites. Seeing the exodus of the white populations of Mozambique, Angola and Zimbabwe which took the wealth with them which he hoped to avoid (although it did partially happen). Trying to appease whites he made de Klerk his deputy which gave conservative whites a foot in the door to block some of Mandela's more radical plans. However, his presidency was praised for reconciliation with the Truth and Reconciliation Commission which was controversial but respected. The 1996 constitution also protected gay rights and paved the way for the legalisation of gay marriage in 2006 which he supported. While president he did have Long Walk to Presidency published and married Graca Machel, the widow of Mozambique's president. He chose to only serve one term handing power to the ANC's new leader Thabo Mbeki in 1999.

Post-Presidency

At the World Cup

Until his death in 2013 Mandela remained a figure in South African society. Among the campaigns he took part in were advocacy for those with HIV/AIDs and called for more treatment of it, especially as his son Makgatho tragically passed because of AIDs in 2005. During his presidency he had tried to smooth over Libyan-UK relations which had worsened thanks to the Lockerbie bombing and post-presidency he tried to call for better treatment of Libyan terrorists in British prisons. He was also one of the many political figures to oppose the invasion of Iraq and was very critical of US foreign policy. Mandela, Tutu and Machel formed a group called the Elders which aimed to advise world leaders and politicians in affairs which included calling on Robert Mugabe to improve human rights in Zimbabwe. Of course the world definitely paid attention when Mandela got South Africa to host the 2010 Football World Cup and appeared at the opening ceremony. For the last few years of his life he suffered from respiratory problems before sadly passing in 2013. His funeral saw thousands of mourners come to pay their respects and was televised worldwide.

Despite disappointments in his presidency Nelson Mandela inspired thousands to millions around the world. His devotion to democracy, equality and freedom couple with oppression in prison for decades made him an icon and an idol for individuals across the world.

Thank you for reading. For future blog posts please see our Facebook or catch me on Twitter @LewisTwiby. The sources I have used are as follows:

-Nelson Mandela, Long Walk to Freedom, (London: Abacus, 1994)

-Martin Meredith, The State of Africa: A History of the Continent since Independence, (London: Simon & Schuster, 2005)

-William Beinart, Twentieth-Century South Africa, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001)

-Anthony Sampson, Mandela: The Authorised Biography, (London: Harper Collins, 1999)

-Saul Dubow, Apartheid, 1948-1994, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014)